英语国家概况（中英） bbs.ikaka.com

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:36:00

Chapter 1
第一章
Land and People

英国的国土与人民

I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts

英国的不同名称及其各组成部分

1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.

地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。

2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.

不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。

4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.

大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.

英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。

(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh

苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。
(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff
威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫
(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.
北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。
5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.
英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。

II. Geographical Features 英国的地理特征

1.Geographical position of Britain:
英国的地理位置：
Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.
英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。

2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands.
英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。

III. Rivers and Lakes 河流与湖泊

Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).
本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1,343米。
Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).
塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。
Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain. (336km).
泰晤士河是英国第二大河，也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。
Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometres).
讷湖（内伊湖）是英国最大的湖，位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。
River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.
克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。
Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1,085m）
斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点，海拔1,085米。

IV. Climate 气候

1. Britain''s favorable climate 英国有利的气候条件：
Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range.
英国属于海洋性气候：冬季不过于寒冷，夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量，气温变化幅度小。

2.The factors influence the climate in Britain:
影响英国气候的因素：
1）The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer;
环绕四周的海水。冬天，海水可使岛内气温升高，夏天则使气温降低，从而起到平衡季节温差的作用；
2）The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate;
一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的空气，使气温适宜；
3）The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them.
北大西洋暖流经不列颠群岛西海岸，使气候变暖。

3.Rainfall 降雨量：

Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the south and east.
英国全年降雨量稳定，平均降雨量超过1000毫米。英国北部、西部雨量过多，但是南部、东部有所缺乏。

V. The People 人口

1.population distribution 人口分布：

Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%), the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%).
英国人口约570万，分布极不均匀，90%是城市人口，只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成为：英格兰人（81.5%），苏格兰人（9.6%），威尔士人（1.9%），爱尔兰人、北爱尔兰人和其他民族居民。

2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots, Welsh and Irish:
英伦三岛民族的祖先：
The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots, Welsh and Irish are Celts.
英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁—萨克逊人，而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人属于凯尔特人。

3.The difference in character个性差别：
The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past.
威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。
The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly.
苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。
The Irish are charm and vivacity. 爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。

4.The difference in speech between southern England and northern England:
英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别：
Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; In northern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England.
南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。

5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威尔士人以这样的方式使他们的语言及文化保持活力。
Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art.
一年中他们有称之为“艺术年会”的唱歌、跳舞、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛会。在那里会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、唱歌和艺术比赛。

6.The main problem in Northern Ireland: 北爱尔兰存在的主要问题：
The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group, and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities.
作为统治者的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。

7.Immigrants: 移民：
About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II.
自从二战以来约有三百万人来英国生活、工作。

2005-8-22 10:37 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 2
第二章
The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)
英国的起源（公元前5000年—1066年）

I.Early Settlers （5000BC-55BC）
早期的居民（公元前5000年—公元前55年）

1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.
人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。
2． At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland.
约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。
3． The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.
约公元前700年，克尔特人来到不列颠岛。
4． The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.
克尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。
The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.
第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。
The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.
第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞（不列颠）人的抵达。
The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.
第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:36:00

II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)
罗马人统治时期的英国（公元前55年—410年）

1.British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation.

有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，罗马将军朱略斯•凯撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元43年，克劳锹才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里，英国人处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。

2. Roman’s influence on Britain.
The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain’s natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.
罗马人修建了许多城镇网，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到不列颠。

3.Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain.
罗马对不列颠的影响有限的原因。
First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.
首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四世纪对罗马人和不列颠人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。

前些天，网友Samy给了我一个很好的建议。就是在每个部分的讲解前，先简要介绍一下本次讲解的内容。我也觉得有了这样的简要介绍，就可以使你们一目了然，然后再看后面的具体内容，就比较容易理解。但是由于这个简要是我自己归纳而成，有些地方可能还存在一些缺陷，还望广大朋友能够谅解。
Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important people in England from 446 to 1066. These most important events are The Anglos-Saxons’ invasion; The Viking and Danish Invasions and The Norman Conquest.
(简要：这是第二章“国家的起源”的第二部分。在这一部分里，主要是介绍了英国从公元446年到1066年所发生的重要事件及人物。这些重要事件分别是盎格鲁—撒克逊人的入侵，北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵及诺曼征服)。

III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)
盎格鲁—撒克逊人（公元446—871年）

1． Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.
盎格鲁—萨克逊时代（奠定了英国的基础）
In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.
The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.
五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。
居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵不列颠。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。

2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.
最早的盎格鲁—撒克逊人改信基督教。
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north.
盎格鲁—撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰中的克尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁特别成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。

3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state.
早期盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。
The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.
盎格鲁—撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:37:00

IV．Viking and Danish invasions
北欧海盗和丹麦人的入侵

1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex.
入侵者是挪威人和丹麦人，从8世纪末开始，他们不断袭击英格兰的各个地方。9世纪，尤其是公元835-878年间已成为严重问题。他们甚至占领了约克郡，公元867年时的基督教中心。到9世纪中叶，北欧海盗和丹麦人威胁到撒克逊人的威撒克斯王国的安全。

2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions
艾尔弗雷德国王（849-899）和他所做出的贡献
Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.
He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.”
阿尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王。他打败了丹麦人，并于公元879年与他们达成了友好协议。协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而他统治其他地区。他还劝服一些丹麦首领成为基督教徒。
他因为建立了强大舰队，而以“英国海军之父”闻名于世。他改组了“弗立德”（撒克逊军队），使之更为高效。他将一本拉丁语的书翻译成英语。同时他还建立了学校，并且阐明了法律制度。所有这一切使他当之无愧于“阿尔弗雷德大王。”的称号。

V．The Norman Conquest (1066)
诺曼征服（公元1066年）

1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death.
威廉在爱德华死后入侵英国的原因。
It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England.
据说，爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉，但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交锋中，威廉打败了哈罗德军队，同时哈罗德也在此战争中战死。

2．The Norman Conquest and its consequences
诺曼征服及其产生的影响。
The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.
1066年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉几乎没收了所有土地，将其分发给他的诺曼追随者。他用强有力的诺曼政府代替了软弱的萨克逊政府。于是，封建制度在英国完全建立。开放了与欧洲大陆的关系，文明和商业得到发展，引进了诺曼—法国文化、语言、举止和建筑。教会与罗马的联系更为密切，教会法庭与世俗法庭分离。

3．The English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin.
英国是一个集不同民族于一体的国家。许多英国人的祖先是古盎格鲁和撒克逊人。而还有一些英国人的是诺曼血统。

2005-8-22 10:38 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 3
第三章
The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)
英国的形成（公元1066-1381）

I. Norman Rule (1066-1381)
诺曼统治（公元1066-1381）

1. William''s Rule （1066-1087）
威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087）
England''s feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror
在威廉统治下的英国封建制度
①Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land''s produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons, who had become William''s tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king.
①在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。②根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。③威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。④这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。⑤已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。⑥在封建等级底层的是农奴。⑦英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且要效忠于国王。

2. King Henry II and his reforms
亨利二世国王和他的改革
The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.
亨利二世巩固君主制的途径。
Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen’s time; strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.
亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。

The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.
亨利二世对法院及法律进行改革的方式。
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop''s court to the King''s court.
亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。

II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter
《大宪章》的内容及意义
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重要的内容是：(1) 未经大议会同意，不得征税；(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4）伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；(5) 全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。

III.The origins of the English Parliament
英国议会的起源
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.
大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各县有两名骑士，各镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:37:00

IV．The Hundred Years'' War and its consequences.
百年战争及其结果
The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England''s desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.
The English''s being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.
百年战争指1337年到1453年英法之间一场断断续续的战争，战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素。领土起因尤其是与英国国王拥有法国的阿基坦大片公爵领地有密切关系，随着法国国王势力日增，他们渴望占领这片在他们领土内的土地。经济原因则与弗兰德斯有关。弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口商，但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王。其他原因还有英国试图阻止法国帮助苏格兰人，以及不断觉醒的民族意识。
战争的结果：把英国人赶出法国对两个国家都是幸事：若国车人继续留在法国，那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍分离的英国民族的发展；而法国民族被外国势力占领了众多的领土，发展更是长期受阻。

V. The Black Death
黑死病
The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England''s population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.
The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.
黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一种流行疾病，在14世纪传播了到欧洲。1348年夏天横扫全英国。英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。
黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远。鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏。地主想把耕地变为人力需求较少的牧场。存活的农民处于有利的计价还价地位，从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返农奴地位。1351年政府颁布“劳工法令”，规定农民们涨工资的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪。

VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance
1381年农民起义及其意义
Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, moved on London in June, 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home, while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.
The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First, it directed against the rich clergy, lawyers and the landowners. Second, it dealt a telling blow to villeinage, and third, a new class of yeomen farmers emerged, paving the way to the development of capitalism.
1381年6月，在瓦特泰勒和杰克斯特劳领导下，凯特郡和埃塞克斯郡的农民和市民武装起来发动起义，并向伦敦进发。国王被迫接受了他们的要求。大多数起义农民解散回家，但泰勒和其他坚决的农民留下来要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治权利。泰勒在又一次与国王的会见中被杀死。
尽管起义被血腥镇压，但在英国历史上留下了深远的影响。这次起义具有真实的社会性，把矛头直接对准了富有的教职人员、律师和地主。这次起义沉重打击了封建农奴制度，产生了全新的自耕农阶级，为资本主义发展铺设了道路。

2005-8-22 10:39 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 4
第四章
Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)
向现代英国的过渡

I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)
向现代英国的过渡(1455年-1485年)
The Wars of Rose
玫瑰战争
The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.
玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争的普遍接受的名称。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。

II. The English Reformation
英国的宗教改革
Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented; and Henry needed money.
最重要的是，亨利八世负责进行教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨教职人员的威望和财富；亨利需要钱。
The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England.
改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529年至1534年间逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他获“英格兰教会最高首脑”之称号。
Henry VIII’s reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism.
改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然加强了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会，并希望从天主教转向新教。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:37:00

III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
伊莉莎白一世（1558年-1603年）
Elizabeth''s religious reform and her foreign policy
伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策
Elizabeth''s religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary''s ties with Rome and restored her father''s independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.
For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain.
伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系，恢复父王独立的英格兰教会，也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。
近30年的时间，伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀，从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未具体化的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。

IV. The English Renaissance
英国文艺复兴
Distinctive features of the English Renaissance
英国文艺复兴的特点
1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics;
2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe;
3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them;
4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.
英国文艺复兴的五个特点：1）英国文化的复兴并不是直接通过古典作品，崦是通过受古典作品影响同时代的欧洲人实现的；2）英格兰作为一个与大陆隔离的国家，其社会历史进程很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家；3）由于14世纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现，英国本国文学得以蓬勃发展，能够在吸收外国文学影响的同时，并未处于从属地位；4）英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的，其次才是哲学的和学术的；5）文艺复兴和英格兰的宗教改革在时间上有所交叉。

VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences
Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.
The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious ( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.
由于查尔斯的“君权神授”统治权，他与议会的对质发展成了内战。战争开始于1642年8月22日，结束于1651年。最后查尔斯被处死。
英国内战又称为清教徒革命。这是议会和国王间的冲突，也是城市中产阶级的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突。城市中产阶级经济利益刚好与他们的宗教（清教）思想吻合，相应地，皇室传统的经济利益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰相结合在一起。英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度，而且动摇了欧洲封建经济的基础。英国内战通常被看作是现代世界史的开端。

The Restoration
王政复辟
When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell''s generals George Monck, occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King''s son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.
1658年奥利弗克伦威尔去世，他的儿子理查德继任护国公，政权立即开始瓦解。克伦威尔的一位将军乔治蒙克占领伦敦，安排新的议会选举。1660年选出的议会要求上一任国王的儿子长期流亡地法国回国作国王查尔斯二世，从而解决了危机。这就是所谓的王政复辟。
The Glorious Revolution of 1688
1688年光荣革命
In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.
1685年查尔斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世继位。詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流亡长大，是个天主教徒，他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家。但是1688的英国已不象40年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了。英国政客反对詹姆斯二世，他们呼吁信奉新教的国王，奥兰治亲王威谦入侵英国夺取王位。1688年11月15日威廉在托尔比登陆并占领伦敦。这一占领相对平静，既未流血也未处死国王，所以就称为“光荣革命”。
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605
1605年
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firework display is arranged.
1605年的火药阴谋案是最著名的天主教阴谋。1605年11月5日，几个狂热的天主教徒企图在议会大厦炸死国王和大臣，盖伊福克斯已在地窖放了炸药桶。结果是福克斯和同伙被立即处死，以及更严厉的反天主教法律的颁发。长斯结果是每年11月5日举行庆祝仪式，点燃火堆焚烧盖伊模拟像并燃放烟火。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:38:00

第五章
The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)
大英帝国的兴衰

I. Whigs and Tories
辉格党人和托利党人
These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).
这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。
The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.
辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。
The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.
托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。
I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century
18世纪末的农业革命
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the “open-field” system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:
18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的“开放田地”制结束。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存：
（1） Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;
由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越在的生产单位；
（2） More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;
人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；
（3） Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;
圈地对佃家而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。
（4） A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.
农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。

II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)
工业革命（1780-1830）
1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。

2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:
英国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：
(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;
优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；
(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industralization.
政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。
(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.
1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。
(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.
英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。
(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.
英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。
(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.
英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。
(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.
发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。
(8) Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” helped.
很可能利益于“放手干”及“新教工作道德”。
(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.
1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市场不再受阴于内部的关税障碍。
(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.
圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所需的一些原材料。

3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution
工业革命中一些重大创新
(1) John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733;
1733年，约翰凯的飞梭；
(2) James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766;
1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机；
(3) Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769;
1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机；
(4) Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779
1779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机；
(5) Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784;
1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机；
(6) James Watt’s steam engine in 1765.
1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。

4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution
工业革命的结果
（1） Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”;
英国成为了“世界工场”；
（2） Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation’s wealth.
城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。
（3） Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.
机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。
（4） The industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.
工业革命产生了工人阶级，即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:38:00

III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)
宪章运动（1836-1848）
1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.
议会改革的原因
(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.
权力由贵族操纵。
(2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair.
城镇和农村，北方和南方的代表权极不平等。
(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.
还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。
2．Three Reform Bills
三个改革法案
Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.
1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。
a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the “Greater Charter of 1832) abolished “rotten boroughs”, and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant’s, based on the value of their property.
1832年的《改革法案》（也称为1832年的大宪章）废除了“衰败选区”；在新兴城镇中较为公平地重新分配了议席；以财产价值为基础给予许多屋主和佃家。

b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.
1834年的新贫困法强迫穷人进工厂，挥懈亲愎坏那谧约旱募依锷妗?br>3．A People’s Charter
人民宪章
There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People’s Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points: (1)the vote for all adult males; (2)voting by secret ballot; (3)equal electoral districts; (4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament; (5)payment of members of Parliament; (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June.
1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满。1836年，一群技术工人和小店主组成伦敦工厂联盟。他们于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章（人民宪章），想把它呈送给议会。宪章有六点内容：（1）所有成年男子都有选举权；（2）进行无记名投票；（3）平等选区；（4）议员选举废除财产资格要求；（5）议员应有报酬；（6）议会每年六月进行大选。
4．Results of the Chartist Movement
宪章运动的结果。
Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class still immature, without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.”
由于领导层的软弱和分歧，由于缺少与工会的协调，宪章运动失败了。当时的工人阶级还未成熟，没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导。但是，宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人阶级运动，引起了对许多严重问题的关注。在1858至1918年间，六项要求逐渐达到，尽管第六项从未成为现实。列宁说宪章运动是“第一个广泛的、真正群众参与的，有政治组织形式的无产阶级革命运动。”

I. Trade Unions and the Labour Party
工会和工党
1. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions and gave financial security.
1871年通过的《工会法》使工会合法化并给其财政保障。
2. The Labor Party had its origin in the Independent Labor Party(ILP), which was formed in January, 1893. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of small socialist societies set up the Labor Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to the Labor Party for the general election called for in 1906.
工党起源于独立工党，于1893年1月成立。1900年，工会代表，独立工党和许多小型社会主义社团一起成立了工人代表委员会。1906年的大选迫使工人代表委员会及时更名为工党。

II. Colonial Expansion
殖民扩张
1. The growth of dominions
自治领的兴起
English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain’s control of the seas, especially by the rising tide of emigration, British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900, Britain had built up a big empire, “on which the sun never set”. It consisted of a vast number of protectorates, Crown colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions. It included 25% of the world’s population and area.
英国殖民扩张开始于1583年纽芬兰的殖民化。在18世纪末、19世纪初，受到海外移民浪潮的鼓舞，英国殖民者很快加他们的扩张到加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰。到1900年英国已建立了“日不落”的大英帝国，包括受保护国、英国殖民地、势力范围和自治领，占世界人口与面积的25%。

Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. The Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada where the British had settled, and Lower Canada populated by the French. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion.
1763年签订的《巴黎条约》将加拿大割让给英国。1774年的《魁北克法》保证了法国的权益。之后，1791年《加拿娃哈哈》把加拿大分为上加拿大和下加拿大，前者是英国人的定居地，后者是法国人的居住点。1867年《英国北美法案》确定加拿大为自治领。
English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing wer united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.
1788年英国人开始把囚犯流放到澳大利亚。1816年开始可以自由定居，1840年后囚犯不再流放到澳大利亚。1851年至1892年的淘金热使更多的人拥到澳洲。1901年，六个自治领统一为一个自治领—澳大利亚独立联邦。
New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841, achieved self-government in 1857, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and was made completely independent in 1931.
1841年新西兰成为独立殖民地，1857年实现自治，1907年成为英皇属下的自治领，1931年完全独立。

1. The Conquest of India
征服印度
The British East India Company established in 1600. By 1819 the British conquest of most India was almost complete. After the muting of Bengal army in 1857, the control of India passed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.
1600年英国东印度公司的建立是经济渗透的实例。到1819年英国对印度的征服已基本完成。1857年东印度公司孟加拉军队的当地士兵发动兵变后，1858年印度改由英国君主统治。1877年维多利来女王正式成为印度女皇。

2. The Scramble for Africa
对非洲的掠夺
At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were confined to forts and slave trading posts on the west coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led the way in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West, Britain was also involved in the North East in Egypt and the Sudan.
19世纪初英国的占领地局限于西海岸的堡垒和奴隶交易点。整个19世纪欧洲人逐渐发现并殖民了非洲内陆。在这场瓜分竞赛中英国占了较大的优势。除了不断扩张的南部和西部殖民地后，英国又凯觎东北的埃及和苏丹。

3. Aggression against China
侵略中国
In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britain and China. Since then, Britain gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of unequal treaties upon China.
1840年英国和中国发动了鸦片战争。从那时起，英国逐渐侵略了中国的许多沿海城市，并签定了许多不平等条约。

VI. Twentieth Century
二十世纪
1. Britain and the First World War
英国和第一次世界大战
The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power blocs: “the Central power”. Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the “Allies”, Britain, France and Russia. During the war, the Britain lost much. Apart from the loss of manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations.
第一次世界大战是从1914年至1918年，战争主要在两大欧洲集团间进行：“同盟国”，包括德国和奥匈帝国，和“协约国”，包括英国、法国和俄罗斯。一战中英国损失惨重。除了劳动力损失，还有巨大的经济与社会瓦解。

2. Britain Between the Two World Wars
两次世界大战期间的英国
The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of 1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great depression.
1929年纽约股票交易所崩溃的影响迅速波及欧洲，到1931年英国进入经济大萧条。

3. Britain and the Second World War
英国与第二次世界大战
As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on September 3,1939.
当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时，首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策已站不住脚，只得于1939年9月3日对德宣战。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:39:00

4. Postwar Britian
战后的英国
(1) One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was that it hastened the end of Britain’s empire.
二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解。
(2) In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen Elizabeth II. Many people through television saw the ceremony.
1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成为伊莉莎白女王二世。新发明的电视使许多人看到了加冕仪式的过程。
(4) In January 1973, Britain became a full member of the European Economic Community which was still called the Common Market in 1973. Britain witnessed the first oil shock in 1973.
1973年1月，英国终于成为欧洲经济共同体的正式成员国。1973年仍称为共同市场。1973年英国经历了第一次石油禁运。
(5) Mrs Thatcher
撒切尔主义
Thatcherism referred to the policies put forward by Margaret Thatcher, the first woman prime minister in England in 1979. The main contents of her policies included the return to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions the strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and order. To some extent her program was successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in the British economy.
1979年撒切尔夫人成为英国第一任女首相。她提出的政策被为“撒切尔主义”。其内容包括国有工业私有化，采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀，削弱工会的影响，加强市场因素在经济中的作用，强调法律和秩序。在一定程度上讲，她的计划是成功的。她领导英国经济度过了一段最繁华的时期之一。

2005-8-22 10:42 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 6 第六章

The Economy 英国经济

I. The Evolution of the British Economy since the War

The evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into three periods:
二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段：
(1) Steady development in the 50s and 60s: The British economy in this period is characterized by slow but steady growth, low unemployment and great material prosperity with rising standards of consumption.
（1）战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长，失业率低，物质丰富，人民消费水平不断增长。
(2) Economic recession in the 70s: In the 1970s among the developed countries, Britain maintained the lowest growth rate and the highest inflation rate, and the high record of trade deficits.
（2）70年代经济滞胀。在70年代，英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中，始终保持最低经济增长率，最高的通货膨胀率，和最高的贸易赤字纪录。
(3) Economic recovery in the 80s: An outstanding feature of the economic recovery in the 80s was its length, lasting seven years. Another was the improved financial position of the government, with stronger current account of the balance of payments.
（3）80年代经济复苏。一个显著特点是时间长，复苏持续了7年。另一个特点是国际收支大大盈余，政府金融地位最高。
Measures taken by Mrs. Thatcher''s government to improve the economy
Mrs. Thatcher''s government took numerous measures to improve the efficiency of the economy during the past decade, using both macroeconomic and microeconomic policies.
撒切尔政府运用宏观经济政策和微观经济政策，采取许多措施提高经济效益。
(1) Macroeconomic measures were directed towards bringing down the rate of inflation and achieving price stability.
宏观经济政策直接针对降低通货膨胀率和维持物价稳定。
(2) Microeconomic policies were aimed at working with the grain of market forces by encouraging enterprise, efficiency and flexibility.
微观经济政策旨在通过鼓励实业，效率和灵活性共同努力提高市场竞争力。
Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry today.

Reasons for the British coal mining is called a “sick” industry today.
英国煤矿被称为“生病”工业的原因。
Today the coal industry in Britain is on the decline，the number of miners, collieries and the total output have been falling.
如今的英国煤矿业衰退，从而导致矿工、煤矿的数量和总产量都大大下降。
The reasons for the decline are as follows: exhaustion of old mines, costly operations of extraction, poor old equipment, little investment, fall in demand due to imports of cleaner, cheaper and more efficient fuels, etc.
煤工业衰退的原因包括：老煤矿的枯竭，昂贵的提炼费用，破旧的设备，极少的投资，由于进口更干净、更便宜、更高效的燃料导致的需求下降等等。
Britain’s oil and natural gas
英国的石油和天然气
Natural gas was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under the North Sea. Today Britain is not only self-sufficient in oil but also has a surplus for export. The transport and domestic heating systems mostly depend on oil. So does the food supply, because most agriculture is highly mechanized. Modern farming requires things which are all oil-based.
在1965年及1970年在北海发现天然气和石油。今天英国的石油不仅能自给自足，还有盈余供出口。交通和家庭供热系统主要依靠石油，因为大部分农业的高度机械化，食品供应也靠石油。
Main problems associated with Britain’s iron and steel industry today.
如今英国钢铁工业的主要问题。
British iron and steel industry is declining for the following reasons:
英国钢铁工业衰退的原因如下：
1. Local supplies of iron ore have become exhausted;
当地贮备枯竭；
2. Old fashioned furnaces for making coke cannot recover valuable by-products;
他们生产焦炭的老式炉不能提取有价值的副产品，
3. Blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling mills are often separated from each other and thus cannot perform as well as more compact operation;
高炉、钢铁厂和轧钢厂经常分开，导致不如更紧凑的企业出效益；
4. Many steelworks have to be closed down, causing major unemployment in an area.
许多钢铁厂倒闭，导致该地区的大批人失业。

The main textile producing regions of Britain are the East Midlands, Yorkshire, Humberside, and Northern Ireland.
New Industries
New industries include microprocessors and computers, biotechnology and other high-tech industries. There are three areas in Britain which have seen some high-tech industrial growth: (1).the area between London and South Wales, (2).the Cambridge area of East Anglia and (3).the area between Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. The third area is the most spectacular of the three and is now often referred to as the “Silicon Glen”. By the end of 1985 half of Britain’s microchip output was estimated to have come from Scotland.
英国主要纺织基地是现在的中东部，约克郡和汉伯塞德郡及北爱尔兰。
The reasons behind the decline of Britain''s textile industry are:
英国纺织业的衰退原蛉缦拢?br>(1) Exports of textiles have not competed well with those of other foreign producers who have managed to produce cheaper goods.
纺织品出口不能很好地与设法生产出更便宜商品的国外产家竞争。
(2) There has been a rise in cheaper imports of textiles to Britain from foreign producers.
英国增加了从外国产家进口更廉价纺织品。
(3) Poor and outdated management decisions have caused problem.
薄弱及过时的管理决策导致许多问题。
(4) Substitutions of human-made fibres have been made for natural fibres.
人造纤维代替品已取代了天然纤维。
(5) An improvement of output per worker has been achieved, due to mechanization.
由于机械化，每个工人的生产量有了提高。

2005-8-22 10:43 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 7
第七章
Government and Administration
英国政府机构

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head of state is a king or a queen. The United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty’s Government. The System of parliamentary government is not based on a written constitution, the British constitution is not set out in any single document. It is made up of statute law, common law and conventions. The Judiciary determines common law and interprets statutes.
联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王。联合王国以君的名义,由国王或女王陛下政府治理。英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法,英国宪法不由单一文件构成,而由成文法,习惯法和惯例组成。司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法。

I．The Monarchy
君主制
1.Elizabeth II, her title in the United Kingdom is “Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.
伊莉莎白二世，她的全称是“上帝神佑，大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王，英联邦元首，国教保护者伊莉莎白二世。”

2.The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces and the “supreme governor” of the Church of England. She gives Royal Assent to Bills passed by parliament.
女王是国家的象征。从法律上讲，她是行政首脑，立法机构的组成部分，司法首脑，全国武装部队总司令，英獭爸粮呶奚稀钡牧煨洹Ｋ蚊紫嗪椭匾恼僭薄６砸榛嵬ü姆ò父栌肌?br>
3.The monarch actually has no real power. The monarch’s power are limited by law and Parliament. Constitutional monarchy began after the Glorious Revolution in 1688.
君主政体实际已无实权。它的权力受限于法律和议会。君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命后开始。

III．Parliament
议会

1.The United Kingdom is a unitary, not a federal, state. Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
英国是中央集权国家，而不是联邦制国家。议会由君主，上议院和下议院组成。

2.The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government; (3) to examine government Policy and administrations, including proposal for expenditure; and (4) to debate the major issues of the day.
议会的主要作用是：（1）通过立法；（2）投票批准税为政府工作提供资金；（3）检查政府政策和行政管理，包括拨款提议；（4）当天的议题辩论。

3.The House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into the process of lawmaking. In other words, the non-elected House is to act as a chamber of revision, complementing but not rivaling the elect House.
贵族院（上议院）由神职贵族和世俗贵族组成。它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法。换而言之，非选举的上议院是修正议院，补充而非反对由选举产生的下议院。

4.The House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs). It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority.
下议院（平民院）由成人普选产生，由651名议员组成。下议院拥有最终立法权。

5.Britain is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals.
英国被划分为651个选区，每个选区选一名下议院议员。大选必须五年举行一次，但经常不到五年就进行一次选举。

6.Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two major parties. These two parties are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Since 1945, either the Conservative Party or the Labour Party has held power. The party which wins sufficient seats at a General Election to command a majority of Government. The leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the Official Opposition, with its own leader and “shadow cabinet ”. The rule of Opposition is to help the formulation of policy. Criticizes the Government and debate with the Government.
英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党—保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为“反对党”，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是帮助制定政策，它可以经常给政府提出批评性的建议和修正议案。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:39:00

III.The Cabinet and Ministry
内阁和内阁部长

1. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of general business of the Government. Cabinet members hold meetings under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to decide Government policy on major issues.
首相主持内阁，负责分配大臣们的职能，在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务。内阁在首相的主持下，每周开会几小时，以决定在重大问题上政府的政策。

2. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for all Cabinet decisions; individual Ministers are responsible to Parliament for the work of their department.
内阁的所有决定由大臣集体向议会负责，各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责。

IV．The Privy Council
枢密院

1. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of executive power in the state and give private advice to the King. So the Privy Council was also called the King’s Council in history. Today its role is largely formal, advising the sovereign to approve certain government decrees.
枢密院原来是政府行政权力的源泉，给君主提供“私人”建议。它在历史上也称为国王议会。今天它的主要作用是礼节性的，如建议君主批准政府的法令。

2. Its membership is about 400, and includes all Cabinet ministers, the speaker of the House of Common and senior British and Commonwealth statement.
它的主要成员有400人左右，包括内阁阁员，下议院院长及英国，英联邦的高级政治家等。

V．Government Department and the Civil Service
政府各部和公务员部

1. The principal Government department main includes: the Treasury, the House of office, the Foreign and Commonwealth office, the Ministry of Defense…
主要的政府部门包括：财务部，内务部，外交部，国防部等。

2. Members of the Civil Service are called Civil Services. They staff government departments. Civil Servants are recruited mainly by competitive examination. Civil servants do not belong to any political party. Changes of Government do not involve changes in departmental staff, There are about 541800 civil servants in Britain now.
文职人员部的成员被成为公务员。公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用。公务员部门不属于任何政党，政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更。英国现约有541800名公务员。

VI．Local Government
地方政府部门

1. There are two main tiers of local authority throughout England and Wales: counties and the smaller districts. Now, England and Wales are divided into 53 counties which are sub-divided into 369 districts.
英格兰和威尔士实行两级地方政府制—郡和比郡小的区。现在英格兰和威尔士分为53个郡，郡下分为369个区。

2. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs.
大伦敦被分为32个行政区。

2005-8-22 10:45 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 8
第八章

Justice and the law
法律与司法机构

There is no single legal system in the United Kingdom. A feature common to all systems of law in the United Kingdom is that there is no complete code. The sources of law include (1) statutes; (2) a large amount of “unwritten” or common law; (3) equity law; (4) European Community. Another common feature is the distinction made between criminal law and civil law.
联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有以部完整的法典。法典来源包括：（1）成文法；（2）大量的“不成文法”或习惯法；（3）衡平法；（4）欧共体法。另一个共同的特点是刑法和民法之间的区别。

I．Criminal Proceedings
刑事诉讼程序

1. In England and Wales, once the police have charged a person with a criminal offence, the crown Prosecution Service assumes control of the case reviews the evidence to decide whether to prosecute.
在英格兰和威尔士，一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪，皇家检察总署就要接管此案，并独立地审核证据以决定是否起诉。

2. In Britain all criminal trial are held in open count because the criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt. The prosecution and the defense get equal treatment. No accused person has to answer the question of the police before trial. He is not compelled to give evidence in count. Every accused person has the right to employ a legal adviser to conduct his defense. If he can not afford to pay, he may be granted aid at public expense. In criminal trial by jury, the judge passes sentence, but the jury decided the issue of guilt or innocence. The jury composed of 12 or ordinary people. If the verdict of the jury can not be unanimous, it must be a majority.
在英国，所有的刑事审判都在法院公开进行。因为刑法认为，在消除合理怀疑证明被告有罪之前，他是无辜的。原告与被告同样平等，审判时被告不必回答警察的问题，不许强迫被告提供证据。每位被告都有权雇佣律师为其辩护。如果他不能支付律师费，可以用公用费用提供帮助。在由陪审团进行的刑事审判中，法官判刑，但陪审团决定是否有罪。陪审团一般由12人组成。如果陪审团不能做出一致判决，也必须是多数决定。

3.A verdict of “ not guilt” means acquittal for the accused, who can never again be charged with that specific crime.
“无罪”裁决意味着被告无罪，并且永远不得再以此罪名对其指控。

II. Criminal Courts
刑事法庭

1. Criminal Courts in England and Wales
英格兰和威尔士的刑事法庭

Magistrates’ Courts which try summary offences and “either way” offences. A magistrates’ court, which is open to the public and the media, usually consists of three unpaid “lay” magistrates-known as justices of the peace-who are advised on point of law and procedure by a legally qualified assistant. A Magistrates’ court sits without a jury.
治安（警事）法庭，负责审理判决犯罪，也审理“任意方式”罪行。治安法庭对公众和媒体公开，通常由三位无薪的“外行”地方官——地方治安官组成，由懂得法律知识的书记员和助手给他们提供法律规定和程序方面的建议。治安法庭审察时没有陪审团。

Youth Court which try most cases involving people under 18.
青少年法庭，负责审理18岁以下青年的大多数案件。

The Crown Court tries the most serious offences and ‘either way” offences referred to it by magistrates. The Crown Court is presided over by High Court judges, full-time circuit Judges and part-time Recorders England and Wales are divided into six circuits for the purpose of hearing criminal case. Each circuit is divided into areas containing one or more centers of High Court and Crown Court.
皇家刑事法庭。负责审理最严重的罪行和由地方法官提交的“任意方式”罪行。皇家刑事法庭由高级法院法官，全职巡回法官和兼任刑事法官主持。为审理刑事案，英格兰和威尔士被分为六个巡回区，每个巡回区又分区域，每个区域有一个或多个高级法庭和皇家刑事法庭。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:40:00

2. Criminal courts in Scotland
苏格兰的刑事法庭

There are three criminal courts in Scotland.（1）the High Court of Justiciary;(2) the sheriff court;(3) the district court. Scotland has two types of criminal procedure, know as solemn procedure and summary procedure. In solemn procedure, a defendant is tried by a judge sits without a jury.
英格兰有三种刑事法院：（1）高级法院；（2）郡法院；（3）区法院。英格兰有两种刑事诉讼：庄重诉讼和即决诉讼。庄重诉讼里，被告由陪审团和法官审理。在即决诉讼中，法官独自审理，不用陪审团。

3. Criminal courts in Northern Ireland
北爱尔兰的刑事法庭

Cases involving minor summary offences are heard by magistrates’ courts presided over by a full-time legally qualified resident magistrate. County courts are primarily civil law courts. The Crown Court deals with criminal trails on indictment.
涉及轻微即决犯罪的案件由治安法庭听审，法庭由全职的法律合格的常驻治安法官主持。郡法庭主要是民事法庭。皇家刑事法庭根据起诉进行刑事审判.

III．Civil Courts
民事法庭

1. Civil Courts in England and Wales
英格兰和威尔士的民事法庭

Magistrates’ Courts have limited civil jurisdiction, The main courts of civil jurisdiction are County Courts, the High Court deals with the more complicated civil case. Its jurisdiction covers mainly civil and some criminal cases. It has three divisions: (1) the family Division; (2) the Chancery Division; (3) the Queen’s Bench Division.
治安法庭只有一定的民事审判权。主要行使民事司法权的是民事法院，高等法院处理更为复杂的民事案。主要包括民事案和一些刑事案，高等法院有三个分支：（1）家事庭；（2）娃哈哈官庭；（3）王室庭。

2. Civil Courts in Scotland
苏格兰的民事法庭

The Civil Courts are the sheriff court and the Court of session.
民事法院包括郡法院和巡回法院（最高中心法院）。

3. Civil Courts in Northern Ireland
北爱尔兰的民事法院

County Court are primarily civil law courts. The magistrates’ court also deal with certain limited classes of civil cases. The high Court of Justice the superior civil law court.
郡法院主要是民事法院。治安法庭也审理某些有限类型的民事案件。高等法院就是高级民事法院。

IV. The Judiciary
司法机构

There is no ministry of justice in the United Kingdom. Central responsibility lies with the Lord Chancellor the Home Secretary and the Attorney General. In England and Wales, lay magistrates are appointed on behalf of the Crown by the Lord Chancellor who is advised by committees in each county. The Lord Chancellor recommends the High Court and circuit judges. The highest judicial appointments and made by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister.
英国没有司法机构。中央政府的司法工作主要由娃哈哈官内政大臣和检察总长负责。在英格兰和威尔士，娃哈哈官根据各部委员会的建议任命外行人员为治安官。娃哈哈官推荐高等法官和巡回法官。最高级别的司法官任命由女王根据首相的建议做出。

V. Police
警察

The police service for United Kingdom is organized and controlled on a local basis under the Home Secretary and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Secretaries. London’s Metropolitan Police Force is directly under the control of Home Secretary. Police officers are not allowed to join a trade union or go on strike. They do not normally carry firearms.
在内政大臣和苏格兰及北爱尔兰国务大臣的指导下，英国警察分地组建，并以地方管理为基础。但伦敦警察署直接与内政大臣管辖。警察不得加入工会或罢工。他们通常不佩带手枪。

VI. Treatment of offenders
对违法者的处理

The chief aims of the penal system are to deter the potential lawbreaker and to reform the convicted offender.
刑罚制度的主要目的是阻止潜在的违法者，并改造已判的违法者。

Capital punishment ( a sentence of death ) for murder has been abolished in the U.K, through proposal for its reinstatement are regularly debated by Parliament, and it remains the penalty for treason and piracy.
英国已废除对谋杀罪的死刑，但议会仍经常辩论要恢复死刑，判国罪和海盗罪仍可判死刑。

2005-8-22 10:45 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 9
第九章

Social Affairs
英国社会

I. Health and Social Services
全国医疗保健计划

1. Britain is regarded as a welfare state. This system is funded out of national insurance contributions and taxation. In Britain the term applies mainly to the National Health Service (NHS), national insurance and social security.
英国被认为是福利制度的国家。此制度的所需资金来源于全国保险税和赋税。在英国，这主要是指国民保健制度，国民保险和社会保障制度。

2. The National Health Service provides for every resident, regardless of income, a full range of medical services. The service was established in the U.K. in 1948. Over 82 per cent of the cost of the health service in Great Britain id funded out of general taxation. The rest is met from: (1) the NHS element of National Insurance contributions; (2) charges towards the cost of certain items such as drugs prescribed by family doctors, and general dental treatment; (3) other receipts, including land sales and the proceeds of income generation schemes.
不管个人收入如何，国民保健制度为每个居民提供全面医疗服务。英国于1948年确立此制度。英国国民保健制度82%以下的费用来自普通税收，其他部分来自（1）国民保险金中的国民保险金部分；（2）象对家庭一生开的药单和普通牙科治疗所收的费用；（3）其他收入，包括出售土地和增收计划的收益。

3. There are proportional charges for most types of HNS dental treatment, including examinations. Sight test are free to children. No one is liable to be charged by the National Health Service for treatment in an accident, emergency or for an infectious disease. Central government is directly responsible for the NHS, which is administered by a range of local health authorities and health boards throughout the U..
国民保健制度中多数牙科治疗都要收取一定比例的费用，包括检查费。视力检查对儿童免费。国民保健制度对事故，急诊或传染病的治疗不收费，中央政府直接负责国民保健制度，由全国各地的保健机构和卫生委员会实施。

4. The family health services are those given to patients by doctors, dentists, opticians and pharmacists. In order to obtain the benefits of the NHS a person must normally be registered on the list of a general practitioner (GP, sometimes knows as a “family doctor”).
家庭保健服务由医生、牙医、眼科大夫和药剂师提供给病人。为获得国民保健制度的服务，人们必须在普通开业医生的名册上注册。

5. A full range of hospital services is provided by district general hospital. There are also specialist hospital or units for children, people suffering from mental illness, those with learning disabilities, and elderly people, and for the treatment of specific diseases.
地区普通医院提供全面的医院服务。也有为儿童，精神病人，有学习障碍者，老人和特殊病人开设的专门医院或病区。

6. The National Health Service is the largest single employer of labour in the U.K. NHS has suffered from underfunding in recent decades, as a result of which many better-off people have been turning to private medical health care.
国民保健制度是英国最大的用人机构。近几十年来，因为资金不足，许多比较富裕的人正逐渐转向私人的医疗保健机构。

7. Personal social services in Britain assist elderly people, disabled people, people with learning disabilities or mental illness, children, and families facing special problems. These statutory service are provided by local government social services authorities.
在英国，个人社会服务向老人，残疾人，有学习障碍者，精神病人，有特殊家庭困难的人等。地方政府社会服务委员会提供法定援助。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:40:00

II. social Security
社会保险

1. The social security system is designed to secure a basic standard of living for people in financial need. Nearly a third of government expenditure is devoted to the social security programme which provides financial help for people who are elderly, sick, disabled, unemployed, widowed, bringing up children or on very low incomes.
社会保险制度设立的目的是保障经济困难的人们的基本生活水平，政府开支的近三分之一用于社会保险计划。此计划给老人，病人，残疾人，失业者，寡妇，抚育幼儿者或低收入者提供经济帮助。

2. Administration in Great Britain is handled by separate executive agencies of the Department of Social Security. In Northern Ireland by the Social Security Agency.
大不列颠的社会保险由社会保险部独立执行机构管理，在北爱尔兰则是社会保险局。

3. contributory social security benefits, it include:( 1) retirement pension; (2) unemployment pension; (3) sickness and invalidity benefit and (4) Maternity allowance and widows’s benefits.
需要先交费的社会安全福利（个人有工作收入时交，无收入时领），其中包括：退休金，失业金，病残福利金，孕产期补助金，寡妇补助金。

4. non-contributory social security benefits, it include: (1) war pensions;(2) industrial injuries disablement benefit;(3) child benefit and (4) family credit.
不需要先交费的福利金，包括战争伤亡抚恤金，工伤致残救济金，儿童补助金，低收入家庭补助金。

III. Religion宗教

1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom with out interference from the community or the State. He may change his religion at will may manifest his faith in teaching, worship and observance. Except that the Lord Chancellor may be a Roman Catholic, public offices are open without distinction to members of all churches or none.
在英国，人人都有信仰宗教的权利，社会和政府不得干涉。他可以随意改变宗教信仰，可以在教职，礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰。除了娃哈哈官不可以是罗马天主教徒外，公共职务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开。

2. Established churches
国教

There are two established church in Britain: in England the church of England and Scotland the Church of England.
英国有两大国教，在英格兰是英格兰国教，苏格兰是苏格兰教会（长老教）。

3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that Church and as “Defender of the Faith”. The Church is also linked with the State through the House of loads. The church of England is not free to change its form of worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer without the consent of Parliament.
英格兰国教与君主有独特的联系。因为君主作为“国教的捍卫者”必须是此教会的一员，他在登基时必须承诺维持国教。国教还通过上议院与政府联系。没有议会同意，英格兰教会不可随意改变“国教祈祷书”中规定的礼拜仪式。

4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian, that is, government by ministers and elders, all of whom are ordained to office. The Monarch is normally represented at the general assembly by the Lord High Commissioner.
英格兰教的管理时长老制，也就是由教士和长老治理。他们被授予圣职，王室高级代表通常代表君主光临会议。

5. Unestablished churches
非国教教会

There are include: the Anglican Churches(圣公会)，the Free Churches(自由教)，the Roman Catholic Church（罗马天主教）。

IV. Festival and Public Holidays
节假日

The Christian festival of the year and Christmas, Easter, and Whit Sunday.
其主要的节日有圣诞节，复活节，圣灵降临节

2005-8-22 10:47 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 10
第十章

Sports
体育运动

1. Many international sports were introduced by the British who take their leisure time very seriously. There is widespread participation in sport in Britain.
许多国际体育项目是由认真对待休闲时间的英国人引进的，在英国，人们广泛参与体育。

2. Football ( or “soccer” as it is colloquially called ), the most popular sport in England as well as in Europe, has its traditional home in England where it was developed in the 19th century.
足球（口语叫”soccer”）,在英格兰和欧洲是最受欢迎的运动，其传统老家在英格兰，出现于19世纪。

3. The game “Rugby” was invented at Rugby School in Warwich shire in the early 19th century.
拉格比球比赛19世纪初创立于沃尔威克郡的拉格比学校，因此而得名。

4. Cricket, the most typically English of sports, has been in existence since the 16th century. On an international level, 5-day Cornhill Test Matches.
板球，是英国人最典型的体育运动，自从16世纪以来已存在。国际比赛是5天的康希尔决赛。

5. Although tennis has been played for centuries, the modern game originated in England in late 19th. The main tournament is the annual Wimbledon fortnight, one of the 4 tennis “Grand Slam” tournaments.
尽管网球已打了好几个世纪，但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰。主要比赛是一年一度的温布尔登两周赛，这是四大满贯网球锦标赛之一。

6. There is a considerable following and participation of athletics in Britain. For example, the London Marathon, which takes place every spring.
英国参加田径的人很多，例如伦敦的马拉松塞，每年春季举行。

7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been played since the 17th century and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there: The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. The Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup for professionals.
高尔夫球的故里是苏格兰，自从17世纪以来这项运动就在那儿盛行。全世界最古老的高尔夫俱乐部也在那里：爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司。业余球员参加沃尔克公开赛，职业球员参加雷德尔杯。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:41:00

美国部分

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:42:00

chapter 13 geography 地理位置
1.Alaska and Hawaii are the two newest states in American.Alaska northwestern Canada,and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.
阿拉斯加和夏威夷是最近加入美国的两个新州。阿拉斯加在加拿大的西北部，夏威夷位邻中太平洋。（本细节还有考“一句话简答”的可能）
2。The U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square kilometres.It is the fourth largest country in the world in size after Russia,Canada and China.
就面积而言，美国是世界第四大国，就人口而言，美国是世界是第三大国。
3.Of all states of American,Alaska is the lagest in area and Rhode Island the smallest.But on the mainland Texas is the largest sate of the country.
所有州中，阿拉斯加是面积最大的州，罗得岛最小，在美国大陆，最大的州是得克萨斯州。
4。The Rockies,the backbone of the North American Continent,is also known as the Continental Divide.
落基山脉是北美大陆的脊梁，也被成为大陆分水岭。
5。The two main mountain ranges in American are the Appalachian mountains and the Rocky mountains. The Appalachians run slightly from the northeast to southwest and the Rocky mountains run slightly from the northwest to southeast.
阿巴拉契亚山脉和落基山脉是美国的两座大山脉。（本细节有考“一句话简答题”的可能）
6。The Mississippi River is the largest river in American,over 6000 kilometers.The Mississippi has been called "father of waters"or "old man river"
密西西比河是美国最长河流，有被称作“众水之父”或“老人河”。
7。The Ohio river has been called the American Ruhr,As in Germany, the area along the river is rich in valuable deposits of high-grade coking coal and is well known for its steel industry.The river provides cheap water transportation for raw materials.
俄亥俄河被称作美国的鲁尔河，就像德国一样，沿河有丰富的高品千周的焦煤，并且因其钢铁而著名。另外，该河还为原材料提供了廉价的水路运输。
8。On the Pacific side there are two great rivers:the Colorado in the south and the Columbia ,which rises in Canada.
太平洋沿岸有两大河：科罗拉多河及哥伦比亚河。
9。The Rio Grande River forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United States.
格兰德河是美国和墨西哥之间的开然界河（本细节考选择和简答可能性大）
10。the most important lakes in the United States are the Great Lakes. They are Lake Superior,which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michigan ,the only entirely in the U.S.,Lake Huron,Lake Eire and Lake Ontario.They are located between Canada and the United States except Lake Michigan.
美国最重要的湖泊是五大湖：苏必利尔湖，密歇根湖，休伦湖，伊利湖和安大略湖，其中，苏必利尔湖为世界最大淡水湖，密歇根湖完全是美国境地内。

11。美国气候概述
1) A humid continental climate(湿润的大陆性气候） is found in the north-eastern part of the country.

2) In the south-eastern United States you can find a humid subtropical climate.(湿润的亚热带气候---东南部）

3）The Pacific northwest is favored with a maritime climate海洋性气候--太平洋西北岸）

4）The southern part of the Pacific coast in California（加州太平洋沿岸南部） has a Mediterranean climate (地中海式气候）with warm,dry summers and moist winters.

12。Many factors besides latitude influence the climate in the United States.Perhaps the most important forces are the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,the Gulf of Mexick ,and the Great Lakes.
影响美国气候的最主要的因素为：太平洋，和大西泮，墨西哥湾，五大湖。

13。Traditionally from the east to the west the United States can be divided into seven geographical regions.美国从东到西可分为七个地理区。

14。New English is made up of six states of the Northeast .Becaust of its stony soil it is not noted for its agriculture .Dairying is the most inportant farm activity,New English is also well-known for its position in education,Many famous universities and colleges such as Yale,Harvard,thd Massachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT) are located here.
新英格兰由美国东北部六个州组成，由于土壤多石，不利于农业生产，乳制品业是最重要的农业活动，许多重点大学如耶鲁大学，哈佛大学和麻省理工学院都坐落于此。

15。New Englanders were originally knows as Yankees,which came to stand for alll American.新英格兰人最初曾被称作“美国佬：这一名称，后来渐渐指所有的美国人。（选择）

16。The Middle Atlantic States have about one fifth of the total population of the united states.大西洋中部各州的人口占美国总人口的1/5。

17。The soil is rich,the rain usually pientiful and the growing season long,These factors make the Midwest America''s most important agricultural area .It is also a major manufacturing region and the nation''s leading center of heavy industry.
中西部地区是美国最重要的农业区，也是主要的制造业区各最主要的重工业区。

18。Chicago,the largest and busiest port on the Great Lakes, is the largest industral and commercial center of the area.芝加哥是五大湖最大最忙的港口，也是该地区最大的工商业中心。

19。Detroit is known as the automobile capital of the world.Omaha is known as the agricultural capital of the United states.底特律被称作“汽车之都，奥马哈被称作农业之都。

20。Dry farming ,irrigation farming,and the cattle and sheep herding are the main cativities of the Great Plains of the American West.
旱地农业，灌溉农业和牛羊牧业是美国西部大平原地区的主要活动。

21。Colorado has been called the steel city of the west ,Denver is the largest city of the Great Plains.科罗拉多市被称作“西部钢城”，丹佛市是大平原地区最大的城市。

22。the largest groups of Native Americans are found on the Colorado Plateau.
美国最大的土著群落位于科罗拉多高原。

23。Mmauna Loa,the world''s largest volcano,is located on Haiwaii and erupts from time to time,Suger cane and pineapples anr Haiwaii''s main crops.Tourism is Haiwaii''s most important industry.莫纳洛阿火山是世界最大和活火山，甘蔗和菠罗是夏威夷的两大作物，旅游业是夏威夷最重要的产业。

24。Honolulu is the capital of Haiwaii and Juneau is the capital of Alaska.
火奴鲁鲁是夏威夷的首府，朱诺是阿拉斯加的首府

2005-8-22 10:50 浅浅芊芊
chapter 14(14章）population.Race and Ethnic groups 必背细节
1.The United States of the American is the third most populous county in the world after Chind and India.美国是世界人口第三大国，仅次于中国和印度。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:42:00

2。Immigration accounts for a major source of population growth,The United States has a more or less open-door policy to immigtants from independence until 1960s.Ellis Island of New York was an important immigration reception spot in the 1890s and at the turn of the century.19世纪末20世纪初，纽约的埃利斯岛是一个重要的移民入境接待点。

3。Almost 20 million people or 7.8% of the total population were immigrants in 1992.Between 80% and 90% of immigration to the United States now is from Asian and Hispanic countries.如今美国移民的80%到90%主要来源于亚洲和拉美国家。

4。Arizona,Nevada,and Florida have been the fastest growing states in population for the last 20 years.在过去的二十年里，亚利桑那，内华达和佛罗里达是人口增长最快的州。

5。The first immigrants in the American history cane from England and Netherlands.
美国历史是第一批移民来自英国和荷兰。

6。The first of these immigration waves in the mid-1810s and reached the highest point in 1845.The second wave covered the period between 1860 and 1890. The largest of the three immigration wave in American was from 1890-1914.三次移民浪潮中最大的一次是1890-1914年。

7.One in five American moves to a new home every year seeking new job opportunity,a better climate of other goals.有1/5的美国人每年搬一次家。

8。美国的四次大规模的人口流动：
流动方向
the Frist 1865-1880 east coast ------west
the Second 1980-1920 rural areas ------cities
the Third 1920----1960 the south/black people ----other areas
the fourth 1960-now Northeast /Central-N----the West/the South
9。A large number of blank people move out of the south to other areas during the period between 1920-1960.大批黑人离开南方涌向外地发生在1920-1960年间。

10。The largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the United States is the blacks who number about 12.1% of the population. The first blacks were brought to North America as slaves in 1619.
美国人口最多的少数民族是黑人，大约占总人口的12。1%，第一批黑人作为奴隶于1619年运抵北美。

11。three major Hispanic groups historically have had the greatest influence on the United States.They are Mexico-Americans of Chicanos ,the Puerto Ricans and the Cuban-Americans.三大对美国影响最大的讲西班牙语的群体为：墨西哥后裔美国人，波多黎各人，古巴裔美国人。（一句话回答）

12。The most important obstacle to Hispanic success in the labor maket is their low education.Hispanics have the highest school dropout rate of any major racial and ethnic group.讲西班牙语的美国人在其他种族的民族中失学率最高，因此，阻挡他们在劳动力市场获得成功的最主要是教育程度低。

13。The Asian-Americans are the fastest-growing racial and ethnic group in the United States,The largest group of Asian-Americans are the Chinese-Americans.Experts say three Asian traditions best explain the success of Asian-American:eduction ,hardwork,and family.
美国少数民族人口中增长最快是亚裔美国人，亚裔美国人中又以华裔美国人最多，专家指出亚洲三大传统可以用来解释亚裔美国人的成功：教育，工作努和和家庭。（一句话回答）

14。Traditionally,the mainstream American were called WASPs,that is ,White Anglo-Saxon Protestants.传统上读，美国人的主流是祖先为英国新教徒的白人。

还有几个必背解释，1。WAPs 2001已考，估计不会再考，即上述第十二条。
2。The Hispanics 讲西班牙语的（人或民族）
The Hispanics usually are Spanish-speaking person of Latin-American origin who live in the United States.Now there are three major Hispantic groups which have grest influence on the U.S.They are Mexico-American of Chicano ,Pueto Ricans and Cuban-American.

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:43:00

1.The "first American "were the Indians.The first English colony in the Americas was founded at Jamestown ,Virginaia,in 1607.Between 1607 and 1733 the British eastablished 13 colonies along the east coast of North American.“最早的美国人”是印地安人，英国于1607年在美国建立了第一块殖民地，即在弗吉尼亚的詹姆斯，1607-1733年间，英国在北美洲的东海岸建立了十三个殖民地。

2。In 1620,201 of Pilgrimw sailed to the New World in a ship called Mayflower.They arrived at Plymouth and built the Plymouth colony.1620年，有201名英国清教徒乘坐一名为”五月花号“的船到达了普利茅斯并建立了殖民地。

3。From 1630 to 1643,some 200 ships transported over 20000 Englishmen to the Massachusetts Bay colony.
从1630-1643年，约有200艘船把2万英国人抵马萨者萨弯殖民地。

4。The colonists were building a new way of life in the New World.There were a number of features which would play a role in forming the American character.They were :representative from of goverment,rule of law,respect of individual rights,religious tolerance and a strong spirit of individual enterprise.殖民主义者新生活方式的这些特点在美国人性格形成中发挥了重要作用：建立代义制政府，法治，对个人权利的尊重，宗教上的宽容及强烈的个人进取心。

5。In September 1744,the Frist Continental Congress was held ih Philadelphia which encouraged American to refuse to buy British goods.1744年9月，第一届大陆仁义在费城如开，鼓励美国人拒绝买英货。

6。The Declaration of Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia.The Declaration is a clear explanation of the political theory behind the revolution and this theory came from the British philosopher John Locke.
《独立宣言》是由托马斯。杰文逊起草的，它明确阐述了支撑这场革命的政治理论，这一理论来源于英国著名哲学家约翰。洛克。

7。On the Christmas Day of 1776,the Americans defeated the British troops at Trenton,New Jersey.Not long afterwards ,the Americans troops deteated the British at Saratoga in Northern New York.This was a great turning point of the War of Independence,leading dirtctly to an alliance between the U.S and France.
1766年的圣诞节，美军在新泽西的特伦顿挫败英军，这之后不久，美军在萨拉托加击败英军，史称“萨拉托加大捷”这次胜利被认为是北美独立战争的转折点，并直接导致美法联军的建立。

8。In September ,1783,the Treaty of Paris was signed,Britain recognized the indeperdance of the U.S.1783年9月簦订《巴黎和约》，英正式承认美国独立。

9。The Federalist Papers are regarded as the best explanation of the constitution as well as one of the most important works on political theory.
<联邦文集》被认为是对美国宪法最好的解释，也是美国最重要的政治理论著作之一。

10。The first ten amendments to the U.S Constitution,which was called the Bill of Rights,adopted in 1791 which promise to protect individuals''rights.
成为宪法的前十条修正案正案被称为《人权法案》。

11.The Articles of Confederation was accepted by all the states by Match 1781.It has two serious weaknesses:1>there was no national executive of law-enforcing branch;2>Congress has no power to raise taxes.
1781年美国各州批准了被称为《联邦条款》的文件，它有两缺陷：一是没有执行或执法机构二是国会由于过于庞大起不到政府的作用，而且国会无权征税。

12。The U.S went to war with Britain in 1812,the last war fought between these two countries.英美最后一次交火是1812的英美战争。

13。During the 13 years of Indian wars after the War of Independence,the Americans forced England to give up the Old Northwest and they forced Spain to open the Mississippi river.Their crossing of the Mississippi helped persuade Napoleon to sell the Louisiana Territory to the U.S.In 1853,in the Gadaden Purchase another 30000 spuare miles of Mexican land were added to the territory of the U.S.
在独战后十三的印第安战争中，美国人适使英国放弃了旧西北地区，使西班牙开放密西西比河，促使拿破伦把路易斯字那志给美国，在1853年的加兹登购买中，另外的3万平方米的墨西哥土地也为美国领土。

14。The twp famous leaders of black movement in the U.S in the 1830s were Garrison and Frederick Douglass.在19世纪30年代两位著名的黑人领袖为加里森和道格拉斯

15。The Union army under the command of Ulysses s.Grant deteated the Confedetate army at Gettysburg,Pensylvania,this victory was the turning point of the Civil War.北方联军在尤利西斯。格兰特的指挥下，在宾夕法尼亚的葛底斯堡击败了南方联盟军，葛底斯堡大捷是美国内战的转折点。

16。Tn the Civil war,Lincoln realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making the war a just war against slavery.So he issued the famous Emancipation Proclamation.美国内战期间，林肯发表了《解放奴隶宣言》

17。On November 19,1863,Abraham Lincoln made a short speech on the occasion of dedicating the national cemetery at Gettysburg.He ended his speech with these memorable words:"That government of the people ,by the people,for the people,shall not perish from the earth.
1863年11月9日，林肯在葛底斯堡阵亡将士公墓落成仪式上发表了简短的演说，他以另人难忘的语言结束了演说“民有，民治，民享的政府永远不会从地球上消失。

18。A conference was held in Philadelphia in May 1787 to consider what should be done to make the Articles of Confederation adequate.All of the states except Rhode Island were represented at the Consititutional Convention.
1787年在费城召开的制宪会议上，除了罗得岛外，其他所有州都参加了，大家讨论如何使《联邦条款》能够满足需要。

另外有几个名词解释和问答题也要记得：
包括：Boston Tea Party 波士顿倾茶事件
the Declaration of Independence 独立宣言
the Emancipation of Proclamation 解放奴隶宣言

2005-8-22 10:52 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 16 American History (2)(1900-1945)必背细节
1． In 1880,the U.S ranked first in the world in the production of steel; in 1900,the U.S. produced 245million tons of coal, ranking first in the world.1880年美国钢产`量世界第一，1900年煤产量世界第一。

2． Large corporation ,urbanization and new technology were the three features in the growth of American economy at the beginning of the 20 th century.大公司的出现，城市化及新技术的迅速发展是美国20世纪初经济增长出现的三大特点。

3． In 1903,the Wright brothers flew a plane for a brief 12 seconds at Kitty Hawk,North Carolina. This was the beginning of the appearance of the plane. In 1911,Glenn E.Curiss designed and flew a successful plane. 1903年，莱特兄弟发明了第一架飞机，但只飞行了12秒。1911年格伦。E。库利斯设计了一架飞机，并成功试飞。

4． At the beginning of the WWI, the U.S.was impartial neither in action, nor in thought.It pursued a policy of pro-Ally partiality.第一次世界大战开始时，美国宣布保持中立，但在行动和思想上都没有做到中立，美国真正奉行的是支持同盟国的政策。

5． The 1920s in the U.S. has been described by many historians as a period of material success and spiritual frustration or confusion and purposelessness.许多历史学家都把美国的二十世纪二十年代描写成一个物质上成功，精神是迷惘或漫无目标的时期。

6． The stock market crash was the beginning of long economic depression in the late 1920S and 1930S.股票市场的崩溃是1929-1933年的经济大萧条的开端。

7． The aim of President Roosevelt’s New measures was to save American democracy and the capitalist system.罗斯福总统“新政：措施的目的在于”拯救美国民主“及克服资本主义制度有史以来最严重的经济制度。
8． In the early 1930S,the American foreign policy was isolationism, to keep the U.S. out of the fighting that was going on in Europe and Asia.在30年代初期，美国奉行的是孤立主义的外交政策，即使美国远离欧洲和亚洲的秸?br>
9． During the WWII, the postponement of the opening of the Second Front was a reflection of the American’s desire not to give the Soviet Union the possibility of quick expansion.二战期间，美国延缓开辟第二战场就反映出美国不让苏联有迅速扩张的可能性

10． American diplomacy in WWII was largely diplomacy towards Britain and the Soviet Union.There were two guiding principles behind all diplomatic activities:1>to win the war;2>to establish t postwar political structure in accord with American interests and to prevent the Soviet Union from over-expansion.二战期间，美国的外交政策大体上是针对英国的前苏联的，所有外交政策的两个主导原则是：羸得战争，按美国利益建立战后政治格局并阻止苏联的过度扩张。

11． The leaders of the U.S. the Soviet Union and Britain met three times during the WWII.1>The first summit was held at Teheran in November 1943.At the conference it was decided that a large-scale attack on the south of France would be launched in May ,1944,which was codenamed Overlord.2>The second conference was held in Yalta in February,1945,it decided on the setting-up of a world organization: the United Nation .3>The third conference was held at Potsdam, which confirmed the temporary division of Europe agreed to at Yalta.二战期间，英，美，苏三中领导人共会晤了三次，第一次是在1943年11月在德黑兰会议，该会义决定进行代号为“霸王行动”的军事行动，向法国南部大举进攻，第二次是1945年2月的雅尔塔会议，本次会议决定建立联合国组织，第三次是在1945年7。8月间在柏林城外举行的波茨坦会议，该会主要确认了雅尔雅尔塔会议关于欧洲格局的暂时分配。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:43:00

必背解释
1． The Muckrakers(黑幕揭发者)
The Muckrakers were a group of reform-minded journalists who made investigations and exposed the dark sides of the society.

2.the Progressive Movement(进步运动/进步主义)（Progressivism）
it was a movement at the turn of the 20th century which demanded government regulation of the economy and social conditions, spread quickly with the support of large number of people across the country. The Progressive Movement was not an organized campaign with clearly defined goals. Rather, it was a number of diverse efforts at political,social and economic reforms.

3.laissez faire(放任主义)
it was an economic practice which stressed that the management of the economy should be left to the business people and the government should merely preserve order and protect property.

4.the Red scare(红色恐惧)
Between 1919 and 1920,the Red Scare happened in America where at that time a highly aggressive and intolerance nationalism existed. On November 7,1919 and January 2,1920,the Justice Department launched two waves of mass attests. Over 4000 suspected Communists and radicals were arrested and many were forced to leave the U.S.

5.the Ku Klux Klan(KKK)三K党
The KKK was first organized in 1866 and then reformed in 1867 after the Civil War in the South and by 1924 it claimed a membership of four to five million. It was a violent society which terrorized and attacked on not only blacks ,but also progressives, Communist and socialist party members, etc.

6.the New Deal(罗斯福新政)
it was put forward by American President Roosevelt who wanted to do something to deal with the Great Depression at that time. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up some efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to “save American democracy” and to overcome the most serious economic crisis of the capitalist system up to that time.

7.Isolationism(孤立主义)
it was the American foreign policy in the early 1930s.it tried to keep the U.S out of the fighting that was going on in Europe and Asia.

2005-8-22 10:53 浅浅芊芊
Chapter 17 American History(III)in post-W.W.II Era(1945-1980S)必背细节
1. On Feb 22,1946,George Kennan, a high-ranking official in the American embassy to Moscow, wrote in the telegram that the U.S.policy should be vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies. Later the containment policy became the official policy towards the Soviet Union.1946年2月22日，美国驻苏联大使乔治。凯南在他的电报中主张对苏联采取遏制政策。
2． The open declaration of the containment policy was made by President Truman on March 12,1949 in a speech to the joint session of congress.1949年3月12日杜鲁门总统在国会联席会议上公开宣布了遏制政策。
3． In order to protect Western Europe from possible Soviet expansion, the U.S.decided to offer Western European countries economic aid. This later came to be called the Marshall plan.为了保护西欧不受苏联扩张影响，美国决定给予西欧国家经济支援，此举后来被称作“马歇尔计划。”
4． The North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed on April 4,1949,marked the beginning of U.S.efforts in setting up a military alliance around the Soviet Union and its allies.美国于1949年4月4日签订的北大西洋公约标志着美国开始致力于在苏联及其盟国周围建立军事同盟。
5． When the Korean War broke out in June,1950,Truman sent the 7th Fleet to the Taiwan Straits to prevent the PLA from liberating Taiwan.1950年6月朝鲜战争爆发，美国杜鲁门政府第七舰队进驻台湾海峡，阻止中国人民解放军解放台湾。
6． The Montgomery boycott was led by Martin Luther King, Jr,a young black clergyman who later became a national leader of the Civil Rights movement.1955年的蒙哥马利抵制公共汽车公司运动由小马丁。路德。金领导，他是一个黑人牧师，后来成为民权运动的全国领导人。
7． Since 1945 the United States had entered a twenty-five-year economic boom.The cornerstones were the automobile,housing,and defense industries.自1945年以来，美国经济进入了长达25年的繁荣期，经济繁荣的基本为汽车，住房和国防工业。
8． Between 1946 and 1961,more than 63.5 million babies were born in the U.S,making the baby-boom generation the largest by far in the American history.从1946年到1961年，是美国历史上的生育高峰期。
9． When the Cuban Missile Crisis happened in 1962,the president of American is Kennedy,the president of Russia is Khrushchev.1962年古巴导弹危机爆发时，美国在位总统为肯尼迪，苏联首领为赫鲁晓夫。
10． Richard Nixon ,who was elected on a platform of ending the Vietnam War, changed the strategy into “Vietnamization” of the war building up South Vietnamese troops to replace American fighting force.里查德。尼克松以结束越战作为自己的竞选纲领，提出把战略改为战争越南化，即建立越南军队以其代替美国军队。
11． In the late 1960s and early 1970s the U.S began to look for a way to improve relations with China so as to get China’s help for its withdrawal from south Vietnam and to work with China against Soviet expansion.20世纪60年代末70年代初，美国改善对华关系的有两上：一是以便从越撤军时能得到中国的帮助，再是希望与中国合作联手对付苏联的扩张。
12． In February 1972,President Nixon visited China and met Mao Zedong and the two countries issued the Shanhai Communique.This visit ended twenty-three years of hostility and led to the establishment of diplomatic relations in January 1979.1972年2月尼克松与毛**东会晤，双方签署了《上海联合公报》。
13． From 1972 to 1979,the key problem that affected the progress in U.S.-China relations remained the Taiwan problem.1972-1979年，影响中美关系的主要问题还是台湾问题。
14． Kennedy initiated the program called the New Frontier. Johnson also started a War on Poverty.肯尼迪执政时启动了“新边疆号召”，约翰逊做总统时发动了反贫困大战。
15． The two famous leaders of black movements in the U.S.in the 60s were Martin Luther King,who advocated non-violent Civil Rights movement,and Malcolm X,who advocated violence in self defense,and attempted to separate themselves from whith society.60年代美国有名的黑人运动领袖为马丁。路德。金和迈克姆。X。
16． Nixon resigned because of Watergate Scandal ,the first president to do so in American history.水门事件使尼克松成为美国历史上第一位辞职的总统。
17． From the mid-seventies onwards ,the U.S suffered from”stagflation”,that is ,the occurrence of stagnation and inflation at the same time.从70年代中期开始，美国开始遭受“经济滞胀”即经济停滞与通货膨胀的同时出现。
有几个名词解释我就不一一列出了，只把题目列出，你们翻到书本记忆吧。
1． The Truman Doctrime 杜鲁门主义
2． The Marshal Plan(马歇尔计划)
3． McCarthyism（麦卡锡主义）
4． Montgomery bus boycott（蒙哥马利抵制公共汽车公司运动）
5． The New Frontier（新边疆号召）
6． The Counterculture （反文化运动）
7． Watergate Scandal（水门事件）2001年全国统考第52题已考8． The little Rock Incident（小石城事件）

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:44:00

Chapter 18 the Economy 美国经济
1． The U.S is by far the biggest industrial country in the world.It is first in such advanced field as computers, space, nuclear energy and electronics.到止前为止，美国是世界上最大的工业国，在计算机，宇航，核能和电子等先进领域居世界首位。

2． Now American has more than half of the European market in transistors, oil refining,farm products,telecommunications,and computers.现在美国的晶体管，炼油，农产品，通讯和计算机占欧洲市场分额的一半多。

3． The U.S has less than 6% of the world’s populatinon.Yet it products about 25% of the total world output.美国拥有不到6%世界人口，却生产出占世界总产量的25%的产品。(2001,23题已考）

4． The U.S has a free-marked economy with a dominant private sector.The privately owned and operated businesses, including farms,produce about 85% of the total output of goods and services. Of course,the government has always been an important element American economy.美国经济是以私营为主的自由市场经济。(2002,44)

5． In the postwar years government involvement was again emphasized when the U.S adopted the Keynesian theory in running the economy. But the American economy was still plagued by stagflation. In the early 1980s,under the Reagan Administration, the traditional Keynesian theory was replaced by new monetarist policies.二战后美国采纳了凯恩斯理论来管理国这经济，再次强调政府于预。但美国经济还是出现连年的经济滞胀，于是，在80年代初期，在里根政府的领导下，传统的凯恩斯理论被新的货币主义政策所代替。

6． The cultivated land in the U.S makes up 21% of the total land, and people who are engaged in farming make up only 2.7% of the total population. Yet the U.S grows nearly one fourth of the world’s grain and supplies a half of all the exports of grain in the world. It is the world’s leading exporter of agricultural products.在美国，耕地占国土总面积的21%，而从事农业生产的人口只占总人口的2。7%。然而，美国还生产出占全世界近1/4的粮食。美国是世界上最大的农产口出口国。

7． The U.S ranks first in the production and export of corn. It produces nearly 50% of the corn in the world.The Corn Belt is in the Midwest. Iowa is the leading corn-producing state. The Midwest is the most important agricultural region of the U.S.美国的玉米产量几乎占到世界总产量的50%，是世界最大的玉米生产和出口国，玉米带主要位于中西藏部地区，衣阿华是主要的玉米生产洲，中西部是美国最重要的农业区。

8． Wheat is American’s most important food crop. It is second only to corn in production every year. The Wheat Belt is located near the Corn Belt in the Midwest.小麦是美国最重要的食用作物，小麦带也位于中西部地区。

9． The U.S ranks second in the export of rice in the world after Thailand.美国的大米出口量仅次于泰国，居世界第二位。

10． The Midwest is the nation’ leading center of heavy industry. Texas is the country’s leading state in oil and natural gas deposits。中西部是美国最重要的重工业中心，得克萨斯是美国石油和天然气储量最大的州。

11． Huston is now the greatest commercial center of the Southwest and the chemical capital of the world. It is a center of petrochemical and synthetic rubber production . It is also the home of the space center.休斯敦被称作世界化工之都，是美国西南部地区最大的商业中心，也是石油化工和合成橡胶中心，还是宇航中心所在地。

12． The state of California now has passed New York as the most populous state. It is now first in manufacturing ,especially the manufacture of aircraft parts and missiles ,and in shipbuilding ,as well as in food production.加利福尼亚为美国人口最大的州，其飞机和导弹加工业，造船业和食口加工业居世界首位。

13.Currently U.S. exports are about 15% of the world’s total. The U.S imports bout 13% of all world imports,Canada is the largest single source of goods imports by the U.S., outside of North American, Europe is the largest source of imports.当前美国的出口额占世界总出口额的确良15%，进口额占到期13%，加拿大是美国进口产品的最大来源地，在北美以外，欧洲则是最大的进口来源。

14.Fertile soil, forests, water, and minerals are the major natural resources in the U.S.肥沃的壤，广袤的森林，充足的水源和丰富的矿藏是美国的主要自然资源。

15.Unemploument, inflation ,financial deficit, and trade deficit are the trouble that always face the U.S.失业，通货膨胀，财政赤字和贸易赤字是美国一直面临的问题。

16．The estimated number of people living under the poverty line in 1995 was 35.7 million which made up about 14% of the total population.据估计，1995美国生活在贫困线以下的人口达3570万人，占总人口的14%。

17，The leading farm products in the U.S are corn ,wheat ,rice ,soybeans, oranges, meat, milk, apple, oats, cotton, tobacco, etc.美国的主要农作物有玉米，小麦，大米，大豆，桔子，肉类，牛奶，苹果，燕麦和烟草等。

18．The Midwest round the Great Lakes, the Middle Atlantic state, the south, and the Pacific Coast are the major industrial regions of the U.S.五大湖区周围的中西部，大西洋中部各州，南部和太平洋沿岸为美国主要的工业区。
必背解释：
Monetarist policies(货币主义政策)
Since the American economy was plagued by stagflation, in the early 1980s, the traditional Keynesian theory (传统的凯恩斯理论)was replaced by new monetarist, which sought to fight inflation by increasing supply and reducing demand, On one hand ,taxes were cut to increase economic dynamism. On the other hand, interest rates were raised to reduce the supply of money.

Briefly discuss the factors that contributed to the fast growth of the American economy.
简要论述美国经济迅速增长的几个因数：
The fast growth of the American economy has been contributable to many factors:
1> The geographical location of the U.S. provides very good conditions for the country to grow and become strong.2>the U.S has been by being a land rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, together with a moderate climate.3>American has been fortunate in having enough people to provide the labor necessary for a constantly expanding economy.4>The U.S has a skillful and willing labor force. The American labor force is not only hard-working ,but also willing to experiment, to change and to learn new technology.

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:44:00

Chapter 19 Political institution（政治制度）

1．The American Constitution is the oldest written constitution in the world. It was draw up in 1787 and went into effect in 1789.美国宪法是世界上最早的成文宪法，它起草于1787年，生效于1789年。

2．In 1787,Congress called for a meeting of delegate from all the states to revise the Articles of Confederation.1787年，国会召开各州代表参加的大会，主要目的是修改有明显缺点的《联邦条款》。

3．The government is divided into three branched: the legislative ,the executive ,and the judicial. Each branch has part of the powers but not all the power.美国政府被分为3部分：立法机构，行政机构和司法机构。

4．In either case, amendments must have the approval of three-fourths of the states before they enter into force.有两种情可以提出修改宪法条款，但不管是哪种，修正案必须经过3/4的批准才能生效。

5．The President of the U.S is the head of the executive branch and the head of the state elected by the whole nation. The Constitution requires the President to be a natural-born American citizen at least 35 years of age. The president election was held every 4 years .宪法规定总统必须是美国本土出生的美国公民，至少年满35岁，总统选举每四年举行一次。

6． In American ,the “winner-take-all” system applies in all states expect Maine.在美国，嬴者全赢的制度适用于除缅因州外的各州。

7．The electors of all fifty states and the District of Columbia-a total of 538 persons-comprise what is known as the Electoral College. To be successful, a candidate for the Presidency must receive 270 votes.50个州加上哥伦比亚特区共有538位总统候选人，他们组成选举团，要成为美国总统，候选人则要获得270票。

8．The presidential term of 4 years begin on Jan 20 following the November election, The president publicly takes an oath of office, which is administered by the Chief Justice of the U.S. A president can be elected to office only twice.美国总统任期为4年，每位总统任期最多只能两届，总统宣誓就职仪式是由美国首席娃哈哈官主持的。
9． Article I of the Constitution grants all legislative power of the federal government to a Congress composed of two chambers, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of 2 members from each state, Membership in the House is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the Constitution.国会由参议院和众议院组成，参议院由各州派出两名议员共同组成，众议院成员数则按各州人口及大小而定，因此众义员数宪法没有具体规定。

10． The Constitution requires that U.S. Senators must be at least 30 years of age, citizens of the U.S for at least 9 years, and residents of the states from which they are elected. The senatorial term is 6 years, and every 2 years one-third of the Senate stands for re-election.宪法规定美国参议员必须是年满30岁有美国公民资格9年以上的公民，并且是选其为议员的州的居民，参议员任期为6年，且每月年改选1/3的议员。

11． Menber of the House of Representative must be at least 25, citizens for 7 years, and residents of the states which send them to Congress. Today, the House is composed of 435 members. Since members of the House serve two-year terms, the life of a Congress is considered to be 2 years.宪法规定美国众议员必须是年满25岁有美国公民资格7年以上的公民，并且是选其为议员的州的居民，现在，众议院由来35名议员组成，由于众议员任期为2年，所以国会任期往往被认为是2年。

12． Each hours of the Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any subject, except revenue bills which must first come from the House of Representatives.除了税收法案必须首先由众议院提出，国会的两院各自有权就任何提议立法。

13． The Constitution provides that the Vice president shall be president of the Senate. He has no vote, except in a case of a tie. The House of Representatives choose its own presiding officer-the Speaker of the House.宪法规定由美国副总统担任参议院议长，议长不参加投票，除非出现两派票数相等的情况，众议院则选出他自己的主持官员，-众议院议长。

14． According to the Constitution, the judicial power of the U.S shall be vested in one Supreme Court. The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: the Supreme Court, 11 court of appeals, 91 district courts, and 3 courts of special jurisdiction. U.S.judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.根据宪法规定，美国的司法权属于最高法院，司法体系结构为：最高法院，11个上诉法院，91个地方法院，3个有特殊司法权的法院，美国的法官是由总统任命并由参议院批准的。

15． The Supreme Court is the highest court of the U.S and is the only organ which has the power to interpret the Constitution The Supreme Court at present consists of a Chief Justice and 8 Associate Justices.最高法院是美国最高等的法院，也是惟一有权解释的机构，目前法院由一名首席娃哈哈官和颜悦色名助理法官组成。

16． The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: those involving foreign dignitaries, and those to which a state in a party.高等法院最初只对两种案件拥有司法权：涉及国外达官贵人，一个州为一方当事人。

17． In general, American has a two-party system. There are two major political parties in America: the Democrats and the Republicans. There have been four periods in the history of political parties in American.一般说来，美国实行的是两党制，两大主要政党为：民主党和共和党，美国政党的历史可分为四个时期。

18． The first period of the party system in American refer to the appearance of the Federalists and the Anti-federalists. The third phase of the two-party system ran from the 1860s to the 1920s with the Republican Party dominating the political scene for most of the time.美国政党制的第一阶段出现了两个主要党派，联邦派各反联邦派，第三阶段从容不迫9世纪60年代到达9世纪20年代，绝大部分时间是共和党执政。（2002，21题）

19． In the 28 terms of the House of Representatives from 1933 to 1989,the Democrats enjoyed a majority of 26 terms, in the Senate, the Democrats had a majority for 23 terms.从1933年到1989年的确届众议院中，民主党在于6届中拥有多数席位，在参议院中民主党在于23届中拥有多数席位。

20． After the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, the Democratic-Republican party split. The main faction, led by Andrew Jackson, called themselves the Democratic Party, while the faction opposed to Jackson formed the Whig party in 1834.1828年安德鲁。杰克逊当选总统后，民主共和党分裂，由安德鲁。杰克逊领导的主派自称为民主党，反对杰克逊的一派于1834年另立辉格党

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:45:00

Chapter 20 Education 教育
1． It is a general view that every American has the right and obligation to become educated. American believe that ,through education, an individual acquires the knowledge, skill ,attitudes and abilities which will enable him to fit into society and improve his social status. Education helps to shape the society and develop the national strength。在美国，人们普遍认识是，每一个人都有受教育的权利和义务，通过受教育，人们可以更好的适应社会，提高自身的社会地位，教育有助于塑造社会，增强国家实力。（2000，46题，一句话回答）

2． Formal education in the U.S consists of elementary ,secondary and higher education, Elementary and secondary education,which forms public education, is free and compulsory.美国正规的教育由初等，中等和高等教育组成，初等，中等教育属公立教育，是免费和义务的。

3． In American ,there are more public elementary and secondary schools that private ones, while private colleges and universities outnumber public ones.在美国，公立中小学比私立多，而私立大学比公立大学多。

4． Under the Tenth Amendment to the U.S Constitution, education was included among the responsibilities which were “reserved to the states or the people:.根据美国宪法第十修正案，教育是：保留给各州或人民：的责任之一。

5． There is not a national system of education in the United States, It is the state that establishes policies for the education within its boundary, so many variations can be found in the education system of the 50 states.美国没有全国统一的教育体制，而是由各州为自己辖区内的学校
制订政策，所以50个州的教育体制相差很大。

6． Elementary and secondary education in the U.S covers 12 years for ages 6 through 18, All the states have laws that require children to go to school, generally until the age of 16, unless they are severely handicapped.美国初等和中等教育共12年，从6岁到
期8岁，所有州要求孩子们上学上到期16岁，除非他们严重残疾。

7． In American, the total support for public schools is about 186 billion a year, about 7% of the gross national product(GNP)在美国，给公立学校的财政资助一年约1850亿美元，约占国民生产总值的7%。

8． Each local school district of American has a governing board whose major responsibilities are 1>the hiring of professional and support staff, 2>determining the most suitable local curriculum, 3>and developing and approving a budget to carry out educational programs. Usually the board of education employs a superintendent of school, who is the chief executive officer at the local level.每个地方学区都有一个由选民选举产生的管理委员会，它主要有三个职责，1。聘用教师和学校员工，2。决定适合当地的课程，3。制定和批准执行教育计划的预算，通常，教育委员会要选一位督学，作为地方一级的重要教育行政官员。

9． The typical organizational pattern for elementary and secondary schools is that of graded schools. Usually, the elementary school covers grades 1-8 and the high school 9-12.美国中小学典型的组织模式是年级制，通常，小学包括1到8年级，中学包括9到12年级。

10． There is a certain degree of similarity in the American elementary school curriculum. It mainly consists of mastery of the “basics” such as reading, writing, and arithmetic of mathematics.美国各小学的课程有某种程度的相似之处，要是对“基础课的掌握，这些基础包括阅读，写作，和算术或数学等。

11． Higher education of the U.S began with the founding of Harvard College in 1636.美国的高等教育始于1636年哈佛学院的建立。（2001，22选择）

12． The system of higher education in the U.S has three principal functions: teaching, research and public service.美国高等教育有三大职能：教学，研究，和公众服务。

13． In American, there are the best research universities such as Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia and MIT in the east, as well as Stanford and Berkeley on the west coast.美国最好的科研型大学有位于东部的哈佛，耶鲁，普林斯顿，哥伦比亚，和麻省理工大学，位于西海岸的斯坦福大学和伯克利大学。

14． The administration of most colleges and universities is quite separate from that of the school. But there are three State board that set policy for education at all levels in respective state, They are the State Boards of New York, Rhode Island ,and Michigan.大多数学院和大学的行政管理是与中小学分开的，但有3个州例外，它们是纽约，罗得岛，和密歇根州。

15． Except for some college sponsored by the Catholic Church, all college and universities in the U.S ,public or private, are governed by a board of trustees composed primarily of laymen.除了一些由天主教会赞助的大学外，美国所有的大学都是由一个主要的由外行人员组成的托管委员会管理。

16． The community college calls for education to serve the good of both the individual and society. It embodies Thomas Jefferson’s belief that an education should be practical as well as liberal.社区学院奉行教育既为个人又为社会服务的宗旨，它包含了托马斯。杰斐逊教育既是实用的又是自由这一信仰。

17． By the mid-1980s, a wave of education reform swept the country. These reform had two focuses:1>the raising of the standards of teaching and learning;2>the restructuring of the schools.到80年代中期席卷全国的教育改革的浪潮有两个重点1》提高教学标准2》学校的结构改革。

18． In 1983, a report entitled “A Nation At Risk” was issued which cited high rates of adult illiteracy, declining SAT scores, the decline of educational standards. The report put forward five proposals.1983《危险中的国家》发表，引用了成人文盲比例高，学生技能下降，教育水准下降等例子，该报告提出了五点建议。

19． On April 18,1991, President Bush issued his plan” American 2000:An Education strategy” which set six goals.

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:45:00

Chapter 21 Literature, Architecture and Music 文化，建筑和音乐
1． Benjamin Franklin was the only writer in the colonial period whose works are read today “Lost time is never found again”, “God helps those who help themselves “are very famous saying in his Poor Richard’s Almanac.本杰明。富兰克大是殖民地时期唯一一位作品至今仍广为传诵的作家“光阴一去不复回”“自助者，天助之，都是他《穷理查的年鉴》中的名言。

2． Benjamin Franklin’s uncompleted Autobiography is perhaps the first real American writing as well as the first real autobiography in English.本杰明。富兰克林没完成的自传可能是第一本真正的美国作品，也是第一本用英语写的自传.

3． Washington Irving was the first American writer who gained international fame. His most famous book The Sketch Book contains two of the best-love stories from American literature: and .华盛顿.欧文是第一个获得国际知名度的美国作家，他最著名的一本书《见闻札记》，它包括了美国文学两个最受欢迎的故事《瑞普。凡。温克尔》和《睡谷的传奇》

4． In the early part of the 19th century, New York City was the center of American writing .Its writers were called :Knickerbockers” and the period from 1810 to 1840 is called the “Knickerbockers Era” of the American literature. 19世纪早期，纽约城是美国的写作中心，这里的作家被称为纽约市人，从1810-1840年的三十年被称为美国文学的“纽约市人时期。

5． In 1936, Emerson published his famous book Nature, which is the clearest statement of Transcendentalist ideas. In 1837, Emerson gave a speech at Harvard University: “The American Scholar”, which was considered the intellectual Declaration of independence.1836年，爱默生出版了其著作《自然》该书对先验主义作了最清楚的阐述，1837年，爱默生在哈佛大学发表了题为《美国的学者》的演讲，该演讲被认为是知识分子的独立宣言。

6． In The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne consider the effect on an individual’s character of guilty conscience, of hypocrisy, and of hatred.霍桑在代表作《红字》中对人物性格的内疚，虚伪和憎恨的外部影响提出了自己的看法。

7． Mark Twain’s famous works are:1> The Adventure of Tom Sawyer.汤姆。索亚历险记
2> the Adventures of huckleberry Finn( his masterwork)哈克贝利。费恩历险记
3>A Tramp Abroad 浪迹天涯
4>Life on the Mississippi 密西西比河上的生活
5>The Gilded Age 镀金时代6>Innocents Abroad 无知者的国外游（一句话简答的可能）

8．In Walt Whitman’s masterpiece Leaves of Grass, he praised the ideas of equality and democracy and celebrated the dignity, the self-reliant spirit and the joy of the common man. “Song of Myself” is Whitman’s very famous works. Whitman was the first to explore fully the possibilities of free verse.惠特曼是探索自由诗体可能性的第一个，他在他的代表作《草中集》中歌颂了平等，民主的思想，赞美了尊严，自立精神和普通百姓的快乐，《自我之歌》是惠特曼又一名作。

9．Emily Dickson wrote nearly 1800 poems and only seven of them were published during her lifetime. Death was one of the great themes of her work and she seldom lost sight of the grave.死亡是迪金森作品的一大主题。

10．Sister Carrie is Theodore Dreiser’s first novel. Dreiser is also famous for his Trilogy of Desire(The Financier, The Titan, and The Stoic), and An American Tragedy, which is considered to be his best.《嘉丽妹妹》是德莱塞的第一部小说，德莱塞还因其〈欲望三部曲〉“金融家”“巨人”“斯多葛”以及〈美国国悲剧〉而闻名于世，它也被认为是他最好的一部作品。（2001。46问答）

12． Thomas Sterns Eliot won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1946. His masterpiece, “The Waste Land” reveals the spiritual crisis of Post War Europe, and is considered the manifesto of the “Lost Generation”.托马斯。艾略特于1946年获得诺贝尔文学奖，《荒原》是其代表用，展现了战后欧洲的精神危机，被认为是“迷惘的一代的宣言书。

13． Ernest Hemingway won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954, The sun Also Rises is his important novel. His other important works include Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls, Old Man and the Sea.海明威1954年获得诺贝尔文学奖，《太阳照样升起》是他的第一部重要作品，他的其他著名作品还有《永别了，武器》，《丧钟为谁而鸣》《老人与海》（一句话简答的可能）（2001。24选择）

14． Hughes and Wright were the major figures of Black writers. Hughes was regarded as Black American’s poet laureate. In his masterpiece “The Weary Blues”, he explains the everyday life in Harlem. Native Son is Wright’s masterpiece. It is the first book by a Black author about the Black life. Black Boy was an autobiography relating the bitter experience of Wright’s youth.休斯和赖特是美国黑人作家的代表人物，休斯被认为是美国黑人“桂冠诗人”，其代表作为《疲惫的黑人伤感歌》〈土生子〉是赖特的代表作，它是第一部关于赖特青年时期苦难经历的自传。

15． In the 1920s,Black Literature developed into an upsurge which has come to be known as the Harlem Renaissance.美国文学的：哈莱姆复兴“发生在20世纪20年代。

16． The first uniquely American contribution to architecture was the Skyscraper, which was perfected in the late 19th century by the Chicago architect, Louis Sullivan. Sears Tower is the tallest building in the world, which was completed in 1974 in Chicago.摩天大楼是美国人对建筑的第一个贡献，它是由芝加哥建筑师路易斯。沙利文完成的，西尔斯大厦是世界是最高的建筑物。

17． In American, Jazz, Rock and Role, Western and country music are the main type of popular music. Jazz is considered the U.S’ s unique contribution to music.爵士乐，摇滚乐和西部乡村音乐是美国流行音乐的几种形式，爵士乐被认为是美国人对音乐的特别贡献。

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第二十二章节：Holidays and Festivals 节日和假期

1． By long custom, American nationally observed holidays include Christmas, Thanksgiving Day, Labor Day, Independence Day, New Year’s Day, Columbus Day, Washington’s birthday, Memorial Day and Veterans’ Day.在美国有以下节日是全国同庆的节日：圣诞节，感恩节，劳动节，独立纪念日，新年，哥伦布纪念日，华盛顿诞辰纪念日，阵亡将士纪念日和退伍军人节。

2． Easter Sunday, which comes from the ancient Norwegian festival of Spring sun, is the second of the two most important religious holidays for Christians. Egg rolling, the original Easter tradition by the colonists, is held on Easter Monday morning every year on the Whiter House Lawn. Of all the symbols, the egg and the hare are considered to represent fertility and new life.复活节源于古挪威的春天太阳节，是两上最重要的基督教节日中的第二个，滚彩蛋是殖民者最初的复活节传统，至今仍每年在白宫草坪举行，鸡蛋和野兔被认为是多产和新生活的象征，是复活节的象征物。

3． To celebrate Memorial Day, a grand ceremony is always held at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery near Washington D.C为庆
祝阵亡纪念日，盛大仪式通常在华盛顿特区附近的阿灵顿国家公墓的无名将士墓前举行。

4． Independence Day is American’s most important patriotic holiday patriotic holiday, the birthday of the nation. Now Independence day is celebrated in all states. The army marks the occasion by firing a thirteen-gun salute every year. Many people bring their children to visit the birthplace of the country - Philadelphia.独立日纪念是美国最重要的爱国节日，也是国家的生日，军队每年都会鸣放13响礼炮来庆祝。家长们也往往带孩子们去参观美国的诞生地-费城

5． Halloween(All Hallows’ Eve) is a nighttime children’s holiday. Children with curious masks go from house to house to frighten friends of neighbors and threaten them with :Trick or treat”. Since 1950, more and more children have asked for pennies for UNICEF to help children in other countries, for which the 1965 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to American children.万圣节除夕是孩子们的节日衣晚，你想挨捉弄还是款待我们“是万圣节的孩子们常说的话，1965年，美国儿童获得诺贝尔和平奖。

6。Veterans''Day ,which was called the Armistice Day before, originally celebtated the signing of the 1918 Armistice.退伍军人节，以前称作休战日，最初是为了纪念1918年第一次世界大战停战协议的签订。

7。Thanksgiving Day is a typical American holiday. The theme of Thanksgiving has always been peace and plenty, health and happiness. Thanksgiving Day is historical, national, and religious holiday that began with the Pilgrims. The first Thanksgiving Day was celebrated by the English settlers in Plymouth, Massachusetts on Decenber 13,1621. On Thanksgiving day, people have such traditional food as roast turkey, pumpkin pie, apples, cranberry sauce, squash, etc.感恩节的主题一直是和平，丰收，健康和快乐，感恩节是由清教徒发起的，第一个感恩节是于1621年12月13日由居住在普利茅斯的英国移民庆祝的，烤火鸡，南瓜饼，越橘酱和南瓜是感恩节的传统食品。

8。Christmas Day, which celebrated the birth of Jesus Christ, is the biggest and the best-loved holiday in the United states, in many areas,, after the Thanksgiving Day is the biggest shopping day of the year-the first day of Christmas gift shopping.圣诞节是美国最大的，最受美国人喜欢的节日，在许多地区，感恩节后的第一个星期五是一年中最在的购物日---是购买圣诞节礼物的第一天。

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国家概况名词解释

1.The Thames River
The Thames River is the second largest and most important
river in Britain.It is 336 KM long,rising in southwest England and
flowing through England and out into the North Sea.It flows rather
slowly,which is very favorable for water transportation.
2.The High Landers
They are the Scots who live in the mountainous regions of the
Highlands in Northern Scotland.They are a proud,independent and
hardy people who maintain their strong cultural identity.They
mainly live by farming sheep in mountain areas or fishing on the
coasts and islands.
3.The British Commonwealth 英联邦
The British Empire was replaced by the British CommonWealth
or the Commonwealth of Nations in 1931.It is a free association
of independent counries that were once colonies of Britain.Member
nations are joined together economically and have certain trading
arrangements. The Commonwealth has no special powers.The decision
to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each member
nation. At present there are 50 member counties whitin the
commonwealh (1991).
是曾为英国殖民地，但现在已经独立构成的自由联合体。
4.Cockney伦敦佬
A cockney is a Londoner who is born within the sound of Bow
Bells-the Bells of the church of St. Mary-LeBow in east London
5.Eisteddfodau
festivals of song and dance and poetry celebrated by the welsh
throught the year.by this way the welsh keep the welsh language
and welsh culture alive.

6.The Maritime Climate 海洋性气候
The type of climate when winter is mild,not too cold and summer
is cool,not too hot,and it has a steady reliable rainfall
throughout the whole year.

7.The English Channel
A Channel which separates Britain from the rest of France is quite
narrow.A channel tunnel under this channel was built in 1994 to
join the two countries together.

8.The Chunnel英吉利海峡隧道
In 1985 the British government and French government decided to
build a channel tunnel, which is called “Chunnel”, under the
Straits of Dover so that England and France could be joined
together by road. The Chunnel was open to traffic in May 1994.

9.“pea soup” fogs伦敦雾
the famous “pea soup”fogs were thick heavy yellow fogs of London
and other cities seldom occur any more.
厚的\重的\黄色的雾气10.British isles
The british isles are made up of two large islands and hundreds of
small ones.the two large islands are great Britain and Ireland.

11.Stonehenge: 巨石阵
It is a circular group of large standing stones on Salisbury
Plain, Wiltshire, regarded as one of the most important
monuments纪念碑 of its kind in Europe, and very popular with
visitors.

12.Thomas becket:托马斯
he was English churchman and statesman.he became Chancellor of
England under Henry II in 1155.he was appointed Archibishop
ofCanterbury in 1162.

13.Geoffrey Chaucer
He was an important English poet in the fourteenth century. His
best known is The Canterbury Tales, which describes a group of
pilgrims travelling to Canterbury to visit Thomas Becket’s tomb坟墓.
Because he was the first important English poet to write in
English. He has been known as the “Father of English Poetry”.

14.Joan of arc:圣女贞德
she was a national heroine of France during the hundred year’s
war,she successfully led the france to drive the English out of
france.

15.lollards:罗拉德派
they were poor priests and traveling preachers who were john
wyclif’s followers.they played an important role in the mental
preparations for the peasant uprising of 1381.they preaching the
equality of men before god.

16.The Puritans清教徒
The Puritans were wealthy, well-educated gentlemen. They wanted to
purify the Church of England and threatened with religious
persecution, the Puritans leaders saw the New world as the a
refuge provided by God for those He meant to save.

------------------------------------------------------
Maybe God wants us to meet a few wrong people before meeting the right one,so that when we finally meet the person,we will know how to be grateful.
在遇到梦中人之前，上天也许会安排我们先遇到别人；在我们终于遇见心仪的人时，便应当心存感激。

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:46:00

17.Julius Caesar
He was a great Roman general.In 55BC and 54BC,he invaded
Britain twice.Because of the resistence of the British people,he
withdrew with hostages and prisoners.That's the beginning of the
Roman invasion. 带着人质和俘虏撤退。

18.The Hardrian's Wall
It was one of two great walls built by the Romans to keep the
Picts out of the area they had conquered.
由罗马人修建，把皮克特人挡在已征服的地区之外。

19.Heptarchy七王国
During the Anglo-Saxon's time,Britain was divided into many
kingdoms,among which there were seven principal kingdoms of
Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East Anglia,Mercia and Northumbria.They
were given the name of Heptarchy.
20.St.Augustine
In 597,Pope Gregory I sent St.Augustine to England to convert
the English People to Christianity.He was very successful in
converting the king and the nobility.He was the first archbishop
of Canterbury.
教皇，格里高力一世派圣奥古斯丁到英格兰去使英格兰人皈依基督教。

21.Witan 贤人会议
Witan was the council or meeting of the wisemen.It was created
by the Anglo-Saxons to advise the king.It's the basis of the Privy
Council which still exists today.

22.Alfred the Great
Alfred was a strong king of Wessex.He defeated the Danes and
reached a friendly agreement with them.He founded a strong fleet
and is known as "The father of the British navy".He reorganized
the Saxon army,making it more efficient.He also translated books
and established schools.All this earned him the title "Alfred the
Great".

23.William the Conqueror 威廉征服
William was Duke of Normandy.He landed his army in Oct.1066
and defeated king Harold.Then he was crowned king of England on
Chistmas Day the same year.He established a strong Norman
government and the feudal system in England.
建立了封建制度

24.The battle of Hastings
In 1066,King Edward died with no heir,the Witan chose Harold
as king.William,Duke of Normandy ,invaded England.On October
14,the two armies met near Hasting.After a day's battle,Harold was
killed and his army completely defeated.So this battle was very
important on the way of the Roman conquest.
哈罗德被威廉击败。

25.The Danelaw 施行丹麦法的地区
By the middle of the ninth century,the Vikings and the Danes
were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex whose capital
was Winchester.Alfred,King of Wessex,was strong enough to defeat
the Danes and came to a relatively friendly agreement with them in
879.The Danes gained control of the north and east of
England(-"the Danelaw"),while Alfred would rule the rest.
协议规定丹麦人控制英格兰北部和西部（丹麦法区），而阿尔弗雷德统治其他地区。

26.Norman Conquest
The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in
English history. William the conqueror confiscated almost all the
land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak
Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system
was completely established in England.

27.Domesday Book
It is a book compiled by a group of clerks under the sponsorship
of King William the First in 1086. The book was in fact a property
record. It was the result of a general survey of England. It
recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and ownership of
the land. It was one of the important measures adopted by William
I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it is
kept in the Public Records Office in London.

28.The Black Death
It is a modern name given to the dearly bubonic plague, an
epidemic disease spread through Europe in the fourteenth century
particularly in 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without
any cue. In England, it killed almost half of the total
population, causing far-reaching economic consequences.

29.the divine rights of kings君权神授
the theory that a king rules with the authority of god.

30.The Wars of Roses玫瑰战争(考过)
the name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the
House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York,
symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor,
descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in
1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these
Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great
medieval nobility was much weakened.

31.the Spanish Armada:西班牙无敌舰队
the fleet sent to invade England by Philip II of spain in 1588.

32.The Glorious Revolution of 1688光荣革命
In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II.
James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped
to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England
was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago.
So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a
Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English
throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was
relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the
king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.

33.The Gunpowder Plot of 1605火药阴谋案
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic
conspiracies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted
to blow King James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament
where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars.
The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his
fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws.
The long-term result has been an annual celebration on Nov. 5,
when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firework display is
arranged.
34.Blood Mary血腥玛丽
It is the nickname given to Mary I, the English Queen who
succeeded to the throne after Henry VIII. She was a devout
Catholic and had so many Protestants burnt to death that she is
remembered less by her official title Mary I by her nickname Blood
Mary.

35.rotten boroughs衰败选区
a parliamentary constituency which possessed the right to elect
members of parliament even though its population had dwindled or
was nonexistent.
议会选民区都有权利去选举议会的成员即使它的人口已经下降或是不存在。

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36.mrs pankhurst
british suffragette,she founded the women’s social and political
union,she died a month before women gained full voting equality
with men.

37.the league of nations国际联盟
an international organization of 1920—1946 set up after the first
world war to promote international cooperation and to achieve
international peace and security.

38.the blitz闪电战
an air attack,particularly the London blitz of 1940—1941.the world
is from the german “blitzkrieg”

39.the beatles甲克虫乐队
one of britain’s most influential pop groups,first performing in
1959 in Liverpool.

40.Thatcherism撒切尔主义
The election of 1979 returned the Conservative Party to power and
Margaret Thatcher became the first woman prime minister in
Britain. Her policies are popularly referred to as state-owned
industries, the use of monetarist policies to control inflation,
the weaking of trade forces unions, the strengthening of the role
of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and order.

包括国有工业私有化，用货币政策控制通货膨胀，削弱工会，加强市场力量在经济中的作用，强调法律与秩序。

41.balance of payments收支平衡
it is the difference between the money from exports and the cost
of imports.

42.john Maynard Keyneshe was an influential british economist.Keynes maintained that
governments should use fiscal policy to stabilize the economy.
用财政使经济稳定.

43.visible trade and invisible tradevisible trade is trade of goods such as machines while invisible
trade is trade of services such as banking and tourism.

44.European union欧盟EC stands for European community .EC is now called European
union(EU).it is an organization of 15 western European countries
that promotes cooperation among its members.

45.Monetarist policies(货币主义政策)Since the American economy was plagued by stagflation, in the
early 1980s, the traditional Keynesian theory (传统的凯恩斯理论)was
replaced by new monetarist, which sought to fight inflation by
increasing supply and reducing demand, On one hand ,taxes were cut
to increase economic dynamism. On the other hand, interest rates
were raised to reduce the supply of money.
增加供应，减少需求来打击通货膨胀。一方面，减少税收增加经济活力；另一方面，增加利率减少货币支出。
46.The Trade Union Act of 1871工会法It legalized the trade unions and give financial security. It
meant that in law there was no difference between money for
benefic purposes and collecting it to support strike action.
使工会合法化，并给其财政保障。这意味着从法律上而言，为福利募集资金与为罢工募集资金毫无二至。47.Agribusiness农业产业
The new farming has been called “agribusiness”, because it is
equipped and managed like an industrial business with a set of
inputs into the processes which occur on the farm and outputs or
products which leave the farm

48.British disease英国病The term “British disease” is now often used to characterize
Britain’s economic decline.

49.Constitutional monarchy君主立宪制It is a political system that has been practised in Britain since
the Glorious revolution of 1688. According to this system, the
Constitution is superior to the Monarch. In law, the Monarch has
many supreme powers, but in practice, the real power of monarchy
has been greatly reduced and today the Queen acts solely on the
advice of her ministers. She reigns but does not rule. The real
power lies in the Parliament, or to be exact, in the House of
Commons.

50.Privy Council枢密院A consultative body of the British monarch. Its origin can be
traced back to the times of the Norman Kings. After the Glorious
Revolution of 1688, its importance was gradually diminished and
replaced by the Cabinet. Today, it is still a consultation body of
the British monarch, Its membership is about 400, and includes al
Cabinet ministers, the speaker of the House of Commons, the
Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and senior British and
Commonwealth statesmen.

51.Common lawthe traditional unwritten law of England,based on custom and the
decisions of judges over a period of years rather than on written
laws passed by parliament.
英国的不成文法，以法官的判断和习惯为依据，而不以议会的成文法为依据。

52.the state opening of parliamentthe official opening of a new session of parliament,usually at the
end of October or beginning of November,or after a general
election.

53.The Civil list 英国王室费(考过)an annual allowance,approved by parliament,made to the sovereign
and members of the royal family for the expense involved in
carrying out their public duties. 议会每年一次的津贴补助对君主和皇家成员在行使公共职务时的花费。

54.the civil service公务员(考过)the body of state officials that help s the government.

55.life peer终身贵族a person who is given a peerage贵族地位 that is not handed of to his
or her descendants,usually as a reward for public service.
56.acquittal无罪裁决acquittal broadly means that the individual is released or
discharged without any further prosecution for the same act or
transaction.
是意味着被指控者无罪开释，并再也不可就这件特定罪行被指控。

57.cross-examinationthe questioning of a witness,by a party or lawyer other than the
one who called the witness,concerning matters about which the
witness has testified during direct examination.

58.The Crown Court刑事法庭A criminal court that deals with the more serious cases and holds
sessions in towns throughout England and Wales. It is presided
over either by a judge from the High Court of Justice or a local
full-time judge.

59.probation缓刑a scheme whereby a criminal offender is placed under the
supervision of a probation officer for a period of between six
months(12months in scotland) and three years.
6个月到三年之间。

60.capital punishment死刑the execution of a criminal by hanging.capital punishment also
known as the death penalty.

61.the metropolitan police forcethe police force responsible for London,with its headquarters at
new Scotland yard.

62.The National Health Service英国国民保健制度It is a very important part of the welfare system in Britain. It
is a nationwide organization based on Acts of Parliament. It
provides all kinds of free or nearly free medical treatment both
in hospital and outside. It is financed mainly by payments by the
state out of general taxation. People are not obliged to use this
service. The service is achieving its main objectives with
outstanding success.

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:47:00

63.national insurance 社会保险
the sum levied on all working people by the state as an insurance
against sickness and unemployment.

64.general practitioner(GP)
a doctor who is not a specialist but who has a medical practice in
which he treats all illness.

65.social worker
a person employed by a local authority or a voluntary organization
to give practical aid and advice to people in need.

66.the salvation army
a world-wide Christian organization founded by William
booth,in1865.it giving practical aid and spiritual comfort to the
poor and needy.救世军。

67.Comprehensive schools
Comprehensives schools take pupils without reference to ability or
aptitude and provide a wide-ranging secondary education for all or
most of the children in a district.

68.Reuters
It was founded in 1851 by the German, Julius Reuter. It is now a
publicly owned company, employing over 11000 staff in 80
countries. It has more than 1300 staff journalists and
photographers.

69.grant-maintained(GM)Schools有公费保证的学校
they are state schools outside local education authority
control.there are no tuition fees at these
schools.由国家学校以外的当地教育机构控制，在这些学校是免费的。

70.eleven-plus
an examination formerly used to select school pupils at about,the
age of 11 for an appropriate secondary
education.一种考试对11岁孩子选择适当的中等教育。

71.BBC
the british broadcasting corporation,the UK organization
responsible for making an transmitting of its own television and
radio programs.

72.Rupert murdoch
australian-born us newspaper publisher.he became a us citizen in
1985.

73.the british museum
the national museum of archaeology and ethnography in Bloomsbury
,London.考古学和人种学。

74.Pilgrims Thanksgiving Day
The Pilgrims in 1620, 201 of them sailed to the New World in a
ship called Mayflower. The first winter after their arrival was
very cold and when spring came, half of them were dead. Then the
Indians came to their help and taught them how to grow corn. They
had a good harvest that year. So they invited the Indians and held
the first Thanksgiving celebration in America to give thanks to
God.

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:48:00

Ireland(爱尔兰)
1、peace agreement on northern ireland2、republic of Ireland—the republc of ireland is an independent
country situated in western Europe.it occupies four-fifths of the
island of Ireland.its capital is Dublin.the republic of Ireland is
also known as Eire in Irish.

3、Irish Catholicism—ireland is one of the most catholic countries
of Europe.Catholicism is an integral and pervasive influnce on
national life.today 93.1%of the irish population are Roman
Catholics.about half the Catholic bishops in the United States are
of Irish origin.爱尔兰裔。

4、Easter urprising of 1916—the easter urprising took place in
April 1916.a group of nationalists seized the Dublin general post
office and declared the independence of Ireland.after a week of
fighting,the rebellion was suppressed by the british army and most
of its leader executed.

5、Anglo-irish treaty—from 1918—1921 there was fighting between the
irish republican army and the british government.in 1921 the
british signed the Anglo-irish treaty.the british government
agreed to organize a partition of ireland.the southern part of
ireland gain dominion status as the irish free state,while the
northern part would remain a part of the United kingdom.

6、Fianna fail----it is the largest political party in Ireland.its
historicprinciples are neutrality,promotion of Gaelic and strong
support for a united ireland.its new economic polices include
support for the EC,a high lever of public expenditure to reduce
unemployment and full employment.

7、Fine Gael----one of the two major parties in ireland.it changed
its image from a conservative party to a socially progressive
party since the 1960s.it advocates a program of expanded social
services,but is less in favour of promoting Gaelic than fianna
fail is.

8、James Joyce----the most well –known irish writer of the 20 th
century.his main works include Dubliners, A Portrait of the Artist
As A Young Man and Ulysses.his innovations in language and style
have deeply influenced 20 th century writing.

9、Irish or irish gaelic---it is a celtic language.

10、Ulysses is James Joyce’s masterpiece. 杰作The novel describes the
events of one day in the lives of several people in Dublin and
explores their sub-conscious
minds.小说描述了都柏林的几个人在一天里的事情，探索了他们的潜意识思想。

11、Irish Famine---Irish Famine refers to the widespread starvation
of Irish peasantry which followed the effects of potato crop
failure in the mid-19th century. It was one of the reasons that
Ireland suffered a lot of the loss of population.

12、Irish Republican Army (IRA)---The Irish Republican Army (IRA)
is an anti-British military force established in the early 20th
century. Since the Irish Civil War, IRA has remained a force to be
reckoned with对付 in Irish politics. In recent decades IRA continues
to demand that the Republic of Ireland should be united with the
six countries that from Northern Ireland.

UFO哈哈 - 2008-2-10 14:49:00

美国部分
1.Amerigo Vespucci---Amerigo Vespucci, a navigator, proved that
the land was not India,but a new continent. Therefore, the land
was named America after.

2.the Mississippi---the mississippi has been called "father of
waters" or "old man river",the mississippi and its tributaries
drain one of the richest farm areas in the world.it is the most
important river in the world.
它与它的支流流经世界上最富饶的农业区之一。

3.Hispanics---it stands for the spanish-speaking population of the
united states.these people mainly center in new mexico,california
and texas.there are three major hispanic groups historically
having the great influence on the us.they are chicanos,the puerto
ricans and the cuban-americans.

4.WASPS---WASPS are the mainstream americans,refering to the white
Anglo-saxon protestants.

5.baby boom--baby boom refers to the higher birth rate between
1946 and 1964.

6.the great lakes---the great lakes are the most important lakes
in the united states.they are lake superior,lake michigan,lake
huron,lake Eire and lake ontario.

7.Ellis island---Ellis island was an important immigration
reception spot in the 1890 and at the turn of the century.

8."the great compromise"---"the great compromise" of july
16,giving each state an equal vote in the Senate but making
representation in the House reflect the size of each state's
population.
"大妥协",即参议院中各州有相同的选举权,而众议院代表应按各洲人口比例产生.

9.the Emancipation Proclamation---during the civil war,lincoln
issued the Emancipation Proclamation to get more support for the
union at home and abroad.It granted freedom to all slaves.
解放宣言,由林肯颁布,为了得到国内外对联邦的支持.解放宣言给了所有奴隶以自由.

10.no taxtation without representation---that is ,without their
representatives taking part in decisionmaking,they had no
obligation to pay taxes.
没有代表权不交税，就是说他们如果对殖民地的事务决策没有代表权，他们将没有义务缴纳税金。

11.the Chinese Exclution Act---it was passed by the u.s congress
in may1882,it stopped chinese immigration for ten years.
排华法案在1882年5月由美国国会通过，它10年内禁止中国移民入境。

12.Indentured servants---indenture servants refer to some
immigrants who has to work for a fixed term for their masters to
repay the cross-atlantic fare and debts.
契约佣工，指一些移民必须要在一个限定的时期里为他们的雇主工作来偿还他们横渡大西洋的费用和债务。

13.boston tea party(考过)---in 1773,when ships of tea reached boston
and the governor was determind to see that tea was legally
protected in its distribution,several dozen boston residents
dressed as indians boarded the ships at night and threw $75,000
worth of tea into the harbor.this came to be known as the "boston
tea party".
波士顿倾茶事件，1773年，当满载茶叶的船只到达波士顿时，总督大人决定看看，以确保茶叶卸载时得到合法保护，晚上，几个波士顿居民化装成印度人来到船上仍掉了价值75，000的茶叶。这就是著名的波士顿倾茶事件。

14.continental divide---it is an imaginary line that separates
streams that flow into the pacific ocean from those that flow
into the atlantic.
那是一条难以想象的线，将流入太平洋和流入大西洋的河流划分开来。

15.federalists---they were those who demanded a strong national
system and who later struggle hard for the ratification of the
consititution.
联邦制拥护者就是指那些要求建立坚固的国家体系，之后又为宪法的通过全力奋斗的人。

16.the gettysburg address---it refers to the short speech
president lincoln made when he dedicated the national cemetery at
gettysburg. He ended the speech with “the government of the
people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish死亡 from the
earth”.葛底斯堡（地址），指林肯在阵亡将士墓落成仪式上发表的一个简短的演说

17.the ku klux klan
teh kkk was the first organized in 1866 and then reformed in
1867.the kkk terrorized and attaked not only blacks,but also
progressives,labor union organizers communist or socialist party
members.三K党，最早成立在1866年，后在1867年重组，他们进行恐怖活动，不仅攻击黑人、而且还迫害进步人士、工会组织者、社会主义和共产主义党派成员。

18.muckrakers---muckrakers were reform-minded journalists who made
investigation and exposed the dark sides of the society.
黑幕揭发者,是指那些调查和揭露社会黑色的一面的富有改革思想的记者.

19.intolerant nationalism---that is,not allowing views,oppinions
or beliefs different from the main trend of views or
beliefs.偏执国家主义,是不允许不同于主流的那些观点和信仰等存在.

20.the red scare---the red scare ,on november 7,1919 and january
2,1920,the justice department lauched two waves of arrests,over
4,000 suspected radicals and communists were arrested.
红色恐惧，在1919年12月7日和1920年1月2日，司法部发动了两次抓捕活动，大约4000名被怀疑是激进分子和共**的人被逮捕。
21.the progressive movement---the progressive movement refers to
the movement demanding the goverment regulation of the economy and
social condition.
进步运动，指调整经济和社会状况的运动。

22.overload---at the first summit ,it was decided that a
large-scale attack on the south of france would be lauched in
May,1944,which was codenamed
overload.霸王行动，在第一次首脑会议上，决定在1944年5月向法国南部发动大面积进攻，代号为霸王行动。

23.The New Deal----In order to deal with the Depression, President
Franklin Roosevelt put forward the New Deal program. It passed a
lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficient social security
systems. The New Deal helped to save American democracy and the
development of American economy.

24.the truman doctrine---that is,the united states would support
any country which said it was fighting with communism.
杜鲁门主义，是说美国将支持任何与共产主义做斗争的国家。

25.the marshall plan---that is,in order to protect western europe
from possible soviet expansion,the united states decided to offer
western european countries ecomomic aid.
马歇尔计划，是为了保护西欧免遭苏联的扩张，美国决定提供西欧国家经济援助。

26.the smith act---it was passed by congress,made it unlawful for
any group to advocate or teach the violent overthrow of goverment
in the united states.
史密斯法案,是由国会通过,宣布任何主张或传播暴力颠覆政府的组织为非法行为.

27.the civil rights act of 1964---it outlawed discrimination not
only in public housing,but also in employment on the basis of
race,colour,religion,sex,or national orgin.
民权法案，宣布不仅在公共场所禁止种族歧视，而且在就业中所涉及的种族、肤色、宗教、性别、国籍等也禁止歧视。

28.the poverty line---it is based on the income that households
need to eat adequately without spending more than a third of their
income on food.贫困线，是以一家人能够足够吃饱的收入不超过他们在食物三分之一的收入。

29.poverty---it is the lack of enough income and resources to live
adquately by community standards.贫穷，在社会标准下缺乏足够的收入和来源去生存。

30.monopoly---that is ,one company or a cooperationg group of
companies controls the supply of a product or service for which
there is no close substitute.垄断，指一个公司或公司合作组织，控制着一个不能被代替的生产和服务的供应。

29.oligopoly
that is,a small number of companies dominate an industry.in the
united states ,the auto mobile and computer industries are
oligoplies.
求过于供的市场情况，一小部分公司占据一个工业，美国现在是汽车和计算机业是这种情况。

30. checks and balances
this is a major principle of the american govermental system by
which each branch of the goverment exercises a check on the
actions of the others.
制衡制度,是美国政府的一个主要措施,政府的各部门都可以制止和检查其他各部门的行为.

31.winner-take-all
this is to say,the candidate who receives the most votes wins
everything.
选举人制度,是说获得最多选票的后选人赢得全部.

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